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Subject 1 Study Guide IB 20th Century World History Topics 1. What were the aims of the participants and peacemakers of the Paris Peace Settlement? Wilson and the Fourteen Points? Paris Peace Conference The Paris Peace Conference was the meeting of the Allied victors in World War I to set the peace terms for Germany and other defeated nations, and to deal with the empires of the defeated powers following the Armistice of 1918. They met, discussed and came up with a series of treaties (Peace of Paris Treaties) in an attempt to maintain a lasting peace throughout the world. At its center were the leaders of the three "Great Powers": President Woodrow Wilson of the United States, Prime Minister David Lloyd George of Britain, and Georges Clemenceau of France. Russia and Germany were not allowed to attend, but thousands of others came, each with a different agenda. Georges Clemenceau The chief goal of the French leader, Georges Clemenceau, was to weaken Germany militarily, strategically, and economically. In particular, Clemenceau sought an American and British guarantee of French security in the event of another German attack. Clemenceau also expressed skepticism and frustration with Wilson's Fourteen Points. Vittorio Orlando Vittorio Orlando was sent as the Italian representative with the aim of gaining as much territory as possible. The loss of 700,000 Italians and a budget deficit of 12,000,000,000 Lire during the war made the Italian government and people feel entitled to territories. England Goals of England: David Lloyd George wanted to maintain the British Empire's unity, holdings and interests, but it entered the conference with the more specific goals of: Ensuring the security of France Removing the threat of the German Fleet Settling territorial contentions Supporting the Wilsonian League of Nations with that order of priority. Wilson’s Fourteen Points 1. Open covenants of peace. 2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas. 3. Removal all economic barriers. 4. Reduce armaments. 5. An adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon popular soveriegnty. Wilson’s Fourteen Points 6. The evacuation of all Russian territory and settle all questions affecting Russia. 7. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored. 8. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored. 9. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality. 10. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development. 11. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea. 12. The Turkish portion of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty. 13. An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations. Wilson’s Fourteen Points 6-13. Specific territorial adjustments 14. A general association of nations (League of Nations) must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike. Cartoon “News from the Outside World” - 1924 1. Who are the characters in this cartoon? 2. Origin? 3. Purpose? 4. Value? 5. Limitation? 6. What is the message this source is portraying? 2. What were the terms of the Paris Peace Treaties 1919-20: Versailles, St. Germain, Trianon, Neuilly, Sèvres/Lausanne 1923? Treaty of Versailles The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919. Although the armistice signed on 11 November 1918 ended the actual fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial required Germany to accept sole responsibility for causing the war (later known as the War Guilt clauses), to disarm, make substantial territorial concessions and pay reparations to the Entente powers. The total cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion marks ($31.5 billion, £6,600 million) in 1921. Treaty of Versailles Article 227 charges former German Emperor, Wilhelm II with supreme offence against international morality. He is to be tried as a war criminal. The Rhineland will become a demilitarized administered by Great Britain and France jointly. German armed forces will number no more than 100,000 troops, and conscription will be abolished. Treaty of Versailles German naval forces will be limited to 15,000 men, 6 battleships, 6 cruisers, 6 destroyers and 12 torpedo boats. No submarines are to be included. The manufacture, import, and export of weapons and poison gas is prohibited. Armed aircraft, tanks and armored cars are prohibited. Blockades on ships are prohibited. Restrictions on the manufacture of machine guns and rifles. Treaty of Versailles perception 1. Who are the characters in this cartoon? 2. Origin? 3. Purpose? 4. Value? 5. Limitation? 6. What is the message this source is portraying? 1. Who are the characters in this cartoon? 2. Origin? 3. Purpose? 4. Value? 5. Limitation? 6. What is the message this source is portraying? Treaty of Saint Germain The Treaty of Saint Germain, was signed on 10 September 1919 by the victorious Allies and by the new Republic of Austria. It was not ratified by the United States. The treaty declared that the Austro-Hungarian Empire was to be dissolved. The new Republic of Austria, consisting of most of the German-speaking Alpine part of the former Austrian Empire, recognized the independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and the State of Slovenes, Croatians and Serbs. The treaty included war reparations of large sums of money, directed towards the allies, to pay for the costs of the war. The Palace at St. Germain-en-lay, France Treaty of Trianon The Treaty of Trianon was the peace treaty concluded in 1920 at the end of World War I by the Allies and Hungary, seen as a successor of Austria-Hungary. The treaty established the borders of Hungary. Hungary lost over 72% of the territory it had previously controlled, which left 64% of the inhabitants, including 3.3 out of 10.7 million (31%) ethnic Hungarians, living outside Hungary. In addition, the newly established nation of Hungary had to pay war reparations to its neighbors. Palace of Trianon – Versailles, France Ethnic makeup of former A-H Treaty of Neuilly The Treaty of Neuilly, dealing with Bulgaria for its role as one of the Central powers in World War I, was signed on Nov. 27, 1919 at Neuilly, France. The treaty required Bulgaria to cede Western Thrace to Greece, thereby cutting off its direct outlet to the Aegean Sea. The treaty also forced Bulgaria to return Southern Doubria, which had been captured during the war. Bulgaria was also required to reduce its army to 20,000 men, pay reparations exceeding $400 million, and recognize the existence of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Bulgaria before and after Bulgaria Treaty of Sevres The Treaty of Sèvres (10 August 1920) was the peace treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Allied at the end of World War I. The treaty nullified the territorial gains of the empire during the war. Treaty of Sevres “zones of influence” Cartoons to analyze 3. What were the geopolitical and economic impact of the treaties on Europe; the establishment and impact of the mandate system? Impact of the Treaty of Versailles Treaty of Versailles: Clemenceau had failed to achieve all of the demands of the French people, and he was voted out of office in the elections of January 1920. French Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch, declared, "This is not Peace. It is an Armistice for twenty years." After Wilson's successor Warren Harding continued American opposition to the League of Nations, Congress passed the Knox-Porter Resolution bringing a formal end to hostilities between the United States and the Central Powers. Treaty of Versailles impact on Germany DIKTAT!! – Take it or leave it/imposed settlement Germany's first democratically elected Chancellor, Phillip Schneidmann refused to sign the treaty and resigned. The German economy was so weak that only a small percentage of reparations was paid in hard currency. Nonetheless, even the payment of this small percentage of the original reparations (132 billion Gold Reich marks) still placed a significant burden on the German economy. Finally paid of on October 3rd, 2010. The economic strain eventually reached the point where Germany stopped paying the reparations agreed in the Treaty of Versailles. As a result French and Belgian forces invaded and occupied the Ruhr, a heavily industrialized part of Germany along the French-German border. Impact of Treaty of Saint Germain Treaty of St. Germain: The vast reduction of population, territory and resources of the new Austria relative to the old empire wreaked havoc on the economy of the new nation. Impact of the Treaty of Trianon Although the treaty addressed some nationality issues, it also sparked new ones at the same time. After the new borders had been established, a majority of the 3.3 million Hungarians who lived in now-foreign lands were situated just outside the new border lines and were not given the option of self-determination and were unhappy. Mandate System A League of Nations mandate refers to certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I. Which included a minority rights clause and an International Court. The mandate system was established under Article 22 of the League of Nations. All the territories subject to League of Nations mandates were previously controlled by states defeated in World War I, principally Germany and the Ottoman Empire. Class A Mandates The mandates were divided into three distinct groups based upon the level of development each population had achieved at that time. Class A mandates The first group or Class A mandates were areas formerly controlled by the Ottoman Empire that were deemed to have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognized subject to a lead country until they are able to stand alone. Class B Mandates Class B mandates The second group or Class B mandates were all former German territories in the Sub-Saharan regions of West and Central Africa, which were deemed to require a greater level of control by the mandatory power: "...the Mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience and religion." The mandatory power was forbidden to construct military or naval bases within the mandates. Class C mandates Class C mandates A final group, the Class C mandates, including South-West Africa and the South Pacific Islands, were considered to be "best administered under the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory“. They essentially became colonies of the Mandates. The Class C mandates were former German possessions. 4. What were the mechanisms used for the enforcement of the provisions of the treaties: US isolationism—the retreat from the Anglo–American Guarantee; disarmament—Washington, London, Geneva conferences. US Isolationism In the wake of the First World War, the isolationist tendencies of US foreign policy were in full force. First, the United States Congress rejected president Woodrow Wilson’s League of Nations. Although the United States was unwilling to commit to the League of Nations, they were willing to engage in foreign affairs on their own terms. In August 1928, fifteen nations signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact, brainchild of American Secretary of State Frank Kellogg and French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand. This pact that was said to have outlawed war and showed the United States commitment to international peace. Anglo-American Guarantee The French still regarded the Germans as a major threat to their security after WWI. They wanted Germany divided into separate states, or, failing that, they wanted extensive precautions against future German aggression. The French were promised an Anglo-American guarantee of French borders. Without consulting their militaries, Lloyd George and Wilson offered the Treaty to the French as a means to head off the separation of the Rhineland from Germany. The Treaty of Guarantee achieved widespread bipartisan support in the United States Senate and in the British Parliament. When the Versailles Treaty failed to achieve ratification in the Senate, however, the Treaty of Guarantee sank with it. This led Lloyd George to renege on his commitment, too. Washington Naval Conference The Washington Naval Conference also called the Washington Arms Conference, was a military conference called by President Harding and held in Washington D.C. from Nov. 12 1921 to Feb. 6, 1922. Conducted outside the auspices of the League of Nations, it was attended by nine nations having interests in the pacific ocean and east Asia. The Washington Naval Treaty led to an effective end to building new battleship fleets and those few ships that were built were limited in size and armament. Numbers of existing capital ships were scrapped. Some ships under construction were turned into aircraft carriers instead. London Naval Treaty The London Naval Treaty was an agreement between the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Italy and the United States, signed on April 22, 1930, which regulated submarine warfare and limited naval shipbuilding. Geneva Naval Conference The Geneva Naval Conference was a conference held to discuss naval arms limitation, held in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1927. Badly needed restraints were applied to the naval arms race by the treaties stemming from the Washington Conference (1921-22), but those agreements were largely confined to limitations on battleships and aircraft carriers. Talks dragged on for nearly six weeks during which tensions rose among the former Allies. In early August, the delegates adjourned without reaching any agreement. 5. Explain the role of the League of Nations: effects of the absence of major powers; the principle of collective security and early attempts at peacekeeping (1920-5). League of Nations The League of Nations was an inter-governmental organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920. The League's goals included upholding the new found rights of man, rights of women, rights of soldiers, disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global quality of life. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift in thought from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and so depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to economic sanctions which the League ordered, or provide an army, when needed, for the League to use. Weaknesses of the League The origins of the League as an organization created by the Allied Powers as part of the peace settlement to end the First World War led to it being viewed as a "League of Victors". It also tied the League to the Treaty of Versailles, so that when the Treaty became discredited and unpopular, this reflected on the League of Nations. The League's supposed neutrality tended to manifest itself as indecision. It required a unanimous vote of its nine, later fifteen, member Council to enact a resolution; hence, conclusive and effective action was difficult, if not impossible. It was also slow in coming to its decisions as certain decisions required the unanimous consent of the entire Assembly. Absence of Major Powers Representation at the League was often a problem. Though it was intended to encompass all nations, many never joined, or their time as part of the League was short. Most notably missing was America who was supposed to help ensure world peace and security but also in financing the League. Some have suggested that, had the United States been a member of the League, it would have also provided backup to France and Britain, possibly making France feel more secure and so encouraging France and Britain to co-operate more regarding Germany and so made the rise to power of the Nazi party less likely. Some also acknowledge that if America had been a member of the League, its reluctance to engage in war with European states and to enact economic sanctions may have hampered the ability of the League to deal with international incidents. Failure of Collective Security Another important weakness grew from the contradiction between the idea of collective security and international relations between individual states. The collective security system the League used meant that nations were required to act against states they considered friends, and in a way that might endanger their national interests, to support states that they had no affinity with. This weakness was exposed during the Abyssinia Crisis when Britain and France had to balance attempts to maintain the security they had attempted to create for themselves in Europe, in which Italy's support played a pivotal role, with their obligations to Abyssinia as a member of the League. On 23 June 1936, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin told the House of Commons that collective security had "failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I might call military sanctions ... The real reason, or the main reason, was that we discovered in the process of weeks that there was no country except the aggressor country which was ready for war.” Resolving territorial disputes The aftermath of World War I left many issues to be settled between nations, including the exact position of national boundaries and which country particular regions would join. Most of these questions were handled by the victorious Allied in bodies such as the Allied Supreme Council. The Allies tended to refer only particularly difficult matters to the League. This meant that, during the first three years of the 1920s, the League played little part in resolving the turmoil that resulted from the war. The questions the League considered in its early years included those designated by the Paris Peace treaties. Upper Silesia After the First World War, Poland laid claim to Upper Silesia, which had been part of Prussia. The Treaty of Versailles had recommended a plebiscite in Upper Silesia to determine whether the territory should be part of Germany or Poland. Complaints about the attitude of the German authorities led to rioting and eventually to the first two Silesian Uprisings (1919 and 1920). In November 1921 a conference was held in Geneva to negotiate a convention between Germany and Poland. A final settlement was reached, in which most of the area was given to Germany but with the Polish section containing the majority of the region's mineral resources and much of its industry. When this agreement became public in May 1922, bitter resentment was expressed in Germany, but the treaty was still ratified by both countries. Albania The frontiers of Albania had not been set during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 and had not yet been determined by September 1921. This created an unstable situation with Greek troops repeatedly crossing into Albanian territory on military operations. The League sent a commission of representatives to the region and in November 1921, the League decided that the frontiers of Albania should be the same as they had been in 1913 with three minor changes that favored Yugoslavia. Yugoslav forces withdrew a few weeks later, albeit under protest. The borders of Albania again become the cause of international conflict when Italian General Tellini and four of his assistants were ambushed and killed on 24 August 1923 while marking out the newly decided border between Greece and Albania. Mussolini was incensed, and demanded that a commission be set up to investigate the incident and that the Greek government should pay Italy fifty million lira reparations. The Greeks said they would not pay unless it was proved that the crime was committed by Greeks. Albania Cont. Mussolini sent a warship to shell the Greek island of Corfu and Italian forces occupied Corfu on 31 August 1923. Greece appealed to the League to deal with the situation. Greece was forced to pay fifty million lira to Italy even though those who committed the crime were never discovered. Mussolini was able to leave Corfu in triumph. Mukden Incident The Mukden Incident, also known as the "Manchurian Incident", was one of the League's major setbacks and acted as the catalyst for Japan's withdrawal from the organization. Under the terms of an agreed lease, the Japanese government had the right to station its troops around the South Manchurian Railway, in the Chinese region of Manchuria. In September 1931, a section of the railway was lightly damaged by officers and troops of the Japanese Kwantung Army as a pretext for an invasion of Manchuria. The Japanese army, however, claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the railway and in apparent retaliation (acting contrary to the civilian government's orders) occupied the entire region of Manchuria. They renamed the area Manchukuo, and on 9 March 1932 set up a puppet government. Mukden Incident Cont. The League of Nations agreed to help the Chinese government, but the long voyage by ship delayed League officials from investigating the matter. The Lytton Report declared Japan to be the aggressor and demanded Manchuria be returned to the Chinese. Before the report could be voted on by the Assembly, Japan announced its intention to push further into China. The report passed 42-1 in the Assembly in 1933 (only Japan voted against), but instead of withdrawing its troops from China, Japan withdrew its membership from the League. The League should have responded by placing economic sanctions on Japan, or gathered an army and declared war. Neither of these actions was undertaken, however. The League could have assembled an army, but major powers like Britain and France were too preoccupied with their own affairs, such as keeping control of their extensive colonies, especially after the turmoil of World War I. Japan was therefore left in control of Manchuria, until the Soviet Union’s Red Army took over the area and returned it to China at the end of World War II. 6. What was the Ruhr Crisis (1923); Locarno and the “Locarno Spring” (1925)? Ruhr Crisis (1923-24) The Occupation of the Ruhr, by troops from France and Belgium, was a response to the failure of the German Weimar Republic to pay reparations in the aftermath of World War I. By late 1922, the German defaults on payments had grown so serious and regular that French and Belgian delegates were urging the seizure of the Ruhr as a way of encouraging the Germans to make more effort to pay, and the British delegate urging a lowering of the payments. As a consequence of an enormous German default on timber deliveries in December 1922, the Reparations Commission declared Germany in default, which led to the Franco-Belgian occupation of the Ruhr in January 1923. Ruhr Crisis Cont French Prime Minister Poincaré decided to occupy the Ruhr in 11 January 1923 to extract the reparations himself. Poincaré often argued to the British that if the Germans could get away with defying Versailles in regards to the reparations, then a precedent would be created, and inevitably the Germans would proceed to dismantle the rest of the Versailles treaty. Finally, Poincaré argued that once the chains that had bound Germany in Versailles had been destroyed, then it was inevitable that Germany would once more plunge the world back into another world war. The invasion took place on January 11, 1923, with the aim of occupying the centre of German coal, iron and steel production in the Ruhr area valley, in order to gain the money that Germany owed. France had the iron ore and Germany had the coal. Locarno Treaties The Locarno Treaties were seven agreements negotiated at Locarno, Switzerland on Oct. 5 – 16, 1925 and formally signed in London on Dec. 1, in which the Western European Allied powers and the new states of central and Eastern Europe sought to secure the post-war territorial settlement, normalizing relations with defeated Germany (which was, by this time, the Weimar Republic). Locarno divided borders in Europe into two categories: western, which were guaranteed by Locarno treaties, and eastern borders (of Germany), which were open for revision. The principal treaty concluded at Locarno was the "Rhineland Pact" between Germany, France, Belgium, Britain, and Italy. The first three signatories undertook not to attack each other, with the latter two acting as guarantors. In the event of aggression by any of the first three states against another, all other parties were to assist the country under attack. Locarno Spring (1925) The Locarno Treaties were regarded as the keystone of the improved western European diplomatic climate of 1924-1930, introducing a hope for international peace, typically called the "spirit of Locarno". This spirit was seen in Germany's admission to the League of Nations, the international organization established under the Versailles treaty to promote world peace and co-operation, and in the subsequent withdrawal (completed in June 1930) of Allied troops from Germany's western Rhineland. 7. What were the effects of the Great Depression and threats to international peace and collective security: Manchuria (1931-3) and Abyssinia (1935-6)? Effects of Great Depression The majority of countries set up relief programs, and most underwent some sort of political upheaval, pushing them to the left or right. In some states, the desperate citizens turned toward nationalist demagogues—the most infamous being Adolf Hitlersetting the stage for World War II in 1939. Germany's Weimar Republic was hit hard by the depression, as American loans to help rebuild the German economy now stopped. Unemployment soared, especially in larger cities, and the political system veered toward extremism. The unemployment rate reached nearly 30% in 1932. Effects of Great Depression Japan The Great Depression did not strongly affect Japan. The Japanese economy shrank by 8% during 1929–31. Soviet Union Having removed itself from the capitalist world system both by choice and as a result of efforts of the capitalist powers to isolate it, the Great Depression had little effect on the Soviet Union. Effects of Great Depression United Kingdom The effects on the industrial areas of Britain were immediate and devastating, as demand for British products collapsed. By the end of 1930 unemployment had more than doubled from 1 million to 2.5 million (20% of the insured workforce), and exports had fallen in value by 50%. Manchurian Invasion The Japanese invasion of Manchuria by the Kwantung Army of Japan, beginning on September 19, 1931, immediately followed the Mukden Incident. The Japanese occupation of Manchuria lasted until the end of World War II. In violation of orders from Tokyo, Kwantung Army commander in chief General Shigeru Honjo ordered that his forces rapidly proceed to expand operations all along the South Manchurian Railway. The Japanese civilian government was thrown into disarray by this massive act of insubordination, but as reports of one quick victory after another began to pour in, it was powerless to oppose the Army, and its decision was to immediately send three more infantry divisions from Japan, beginning with the 14th Mixed Brigade of the IJA 7th Division. A.J.P. Taylor wrote that "In the face of its first serious challenge", the League buckled and capitulated. 1. Who are the characters in this cartoon? 2. Origin? 3. Purpose? 4. Value? 5. Limitation? 6. What is the message this source is portraying? Abyssinia Crisis The Abyssinia Crisis was a diplomatic crisis originating in the "Walwal incident." This incident resulted from the ongoing conflict between the Kingdom of Italy and Ethiopia (then commonly known as "Abyssinia"). Both Italy and Ethiopia were members of the League of Nations. Italy was a founding member of the League. Ethiopia joined September 28, 1923. The League had Article X, rules forbidding aggression among members. On August 2, 1928, in addition to abiding by Article X, Italy and Ethiopia signed the Italo–Ethiopian Treaty of Friendship. This treaty declared a 20-year friendship between the two nations. Abyssinia Crisis In 1930, Italy built a fort at Walwal. The fort was in clear violation of the Italo–Abyssinian Treaty of Friendship. The Italians built the fort as part of a gradual encroachment into Ethiopian territory. On September 29, 1934, Italy and Abyssinia released a joint statement refuting any aggression between each other. However, on November 23, an Anglo–Ethiopian boundary commission discovered the Italian force at Walwal. On December 5, 1934, for reasons which have never been clearly determined there was a skirmish between the garrison of Somalis who were in Italian service and a force of armed Abyssinians. According to the Italians, the Ethiopians attacked the Somalis with machine guns. According to the Ethiopians, the Italians attacked them. In the end, approximately 150 Ethiopians and 50 Italians were killed. On December 6, 1934, Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia protested Italian aggression at Walwal. On December 8, Italy demanded an apology and, on December 11, followed up this demand with a demand for financial and strategic compensation. Abyssinia Crisis On January 3, 1935, Ethiopia appealed to the League of Nations for arbitration in the Walwal incident. But the League's response was dull and sluggish. On February 23, Mussolini began to send large numbers of troops to Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. These were the Italian colonies that bordered Ethiopia to the northeast and southeast. There was little international protest to this build-up. On October 3, 1935, shortly after the League exonerated both parties in the Walwal incident, Italian armed forces from Eritrea invaded Ethiopia without a declaration of war. In response, Ethiopia declared war on Italy and the two nations were at war. On October 7, the League of Nations declared Italy the aggressor and started the slow process of imposing sanctions. However, these sanctions did not extend to several vital materials, such as oil and were not carried out by all members of the League. Even actions such as the Italian use of chemical weapons and the massacre of civilians did little to change the League's passive approach to the situation.