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America: Pathways to the Present Chapter 4 The Road to Independence (1753–1783) Copyright © 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. All rights reserved. America: Pathways to the Present Chapter 4: The Road to Independence (1753–1783) Section 1: The French and Indian War Section 2: Issues Behind the Revolution Section 3: Ideas Behind the Revolution Section 4: Fighting for Independence Section 5: Winning Independence Copyright © 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. All rights reserved. The French and Indian War Chapter 4, Section 1 • What were the causes of the French and Indian War? • How did the British win the French and Indian War? • How did the war weaken the colonists’ loyalty to Britain? The Roots of the American Revolution • If you could go back in time to the American colonies in the 1750s, what would be the typical colonist’s view toward Britain and all things British? Proud to be British… • What was the typical colonial attitude toward Britain…? • “It has been said that the Americans were never more British than in 1763.” The colonists were proud of their English heritage. • The British empire also included close to 2.5 million American colonists prouder than ever to be British because they believed their freedom resulted from their equal status in an empire which allowed them a large degree of self-government and liberty. Great pride toward Britain and the British political system…desire to copy all things British…the colonists also saw themselves as British, not as Americans…They believed they were the freest and most prosperous people in the world… (Liberty meant being left alone. In real terms, liberty meant local self-gov’t) Signs of Inferiority • Were there any signs of strain between Britain and the colonies during this time? • There were some strains. There was a feeling, especially acute among the elite that Britain did not treat them with proper respect…feelings of inadequacy/inferiority…Some colonists had ignored the Navigation Acts…but for the most part, the colonists were very content. • These feelings started to change in the mid-1760s. Why? Let’s find out. Causes of the Seven Year’s War Chapter 4, Section 1 • What became a worldwide struggle for imperial domination, which eventually spread to Europe, West Africa, and Asia, began in 1754 with British efforts to dislodge the French from the forts they had constructed in western Pennsylvania.” (GML, p.159) (Seeds of the Revolution) Causes of the Seven Year’s War Chapter 4, Section 1 • This conflict was known in America as the French and Indian War and elsewhere as the Seven Year’s War. It was the final chapter in a long struggle among the French, the British, and various groups of Native Americans for control of eastern North America. It was called the French and Indian War because the British and their American colonists fought against the French and their Indian allies. • • The conflict began because both Britain and France claimed the upper Ohio River valley territory. Causes of the Seven Year’s War Chapter 4, Section 1 • In June 1754, Benjamin Franklin proposed the Albany Plan of Union. The plan was based on the idea that the British colonies would benefit from greater unity, just as the Iroquois nation had strengthened itself by forming the Iroquois League. The colonists rejected Franklin’s plan, but it later provided a model for the United States government. Causes of the Seven Year’s War Chapter 4, Section 1 • During this meeting, Virginia’s governor sent Colonel George Washington to what is now southwestern Pennsylvania to challenge the French’s claims to that land. The French refused to cede the land. Washington surrendered, was released and then returned to Virginia. This event became the beginning of the French and Indian War in North America and the Seven Years War in Europe. Causes of the Seven Year’s War Chapter 4, Section 1 • Early in the war, the French and their Native American allies won many important victories. The British troops and colonial militia, armed citizens who served as soldiers during an emergency, tended to fight in the open and in straight lines, as was common in Europe. The French and Native Americans used the element of surprise and hid behind rocks and trees. The British Win the War Chapter 4, Section 1 • In 1756, Great Britain formally declared war on France. Fighting spread to Europe and Asia, but the British suffered defeats there too, as they had in America. • William Pitt, Britain’s prime minister, the highest official in a parliamentary government, believed that the entire British Empire was at stake. Pitt persuaded Parliament to raise taxes and borrow money to fight the war. In 1758, better-prepared and better-led British troops began to overwhelm the French and Native American forces. The British Win the War Chapter 4, Section 1 • In spring of 1759, the British began a campaign to invade New France and capture Quebec. British General Wolfe laid siege to the city. During a siege, an enemy force is surrounded; trapped and without access to supplies, the enemy is starved into surrender. The British successfully won Quebec, and then Montreal, giving them control over all of New France. The British Win the War Chapter 4, Section 1 • The Treaty of Paris (1763), officially ended the French and Indian War in America and the Seven Years’ War in Europe. In the treaty, France turned present-day Canada over to Britain and surrendered its claim to all lands east of the Mississippi River. Britain also returned Cuba to Spain in exchange for Florida. The French and Indian War, 1754-1763 Chapter 4, Section 1 The three main thrusts of British strategy are shown here. In 1758, British forces struck in two directions—at French strongholds in the West and against Louisbourg in the East. Finally, in 1759, they attacked Quebec and Montreal. Weakened Loyalty to Britain Chapter 4, Section 1 • Despite the victory, the French and Indian War strained relations between the British and the American colonists. • The British thought that the colonists did not provide enough support for the long and costly war that Britain had fought to protect them. Weakened Loyalty to Britain Chapter 4, Section 1 • The American colonists were shocked by the weakness of British military tactics. The Americans demanded to be led by colonial officers. • Many American colonists felt a loss of respect for British military power. Many also believed that the British did not share the same values as the colonists. With victory over France, however, many of these differences were quickly overshadowed by common pride in being British – and being free. Weakened Loyalty to Britain Chapter 4, Section 1 • Tensions between the British professional military and colonists may have faded, but there were always in the back of the minds of those who fought. • All it would take were further actions by Britain that upset the colonists and reminded of their previous negative feelings toward Britain. • It didn’t take too long for Britain to upset those who fought, and more importantly the much larger group of colonists who didn’t fight and who had never really harbored any ill feelings toward the mother country. Colonial Pride in Being British Grows Stronger • For most colonists, “Participation in the Seven Years’ War created greater bonds among the colonies. But the war also strengthened colonists’ pride in being members of the British empire.” • “It has been said that the Americans were never more British than in 1763.” Colonial Pride in Being British Grows Stronger • “Despite tensions between the professional British soldiers and American citizen-soldiers, bonds were still formed by the common experience of battle and victory.” • But, these positive feelings would soon be tested over and over again. Colonial Pride in Being British Grows Stronger • • “British victory over Catholic France seemed a triumph of British Protestant liberty over French ‘popish’ tyranny.” “However, in 1763, the British global empire was neither predominantly Protestant nor British nor free. It now included thousands of French Catholics and millions of persons in India governed as subjects rather than as citizens.” (GML, p.166) • The British empire also included close to 2.5 million American colonists prouder than ever to be British because they believed their freedom resulted from their equal status in an empire which allowed them a large degree of selfgovernment and liberty. Colonial Pride in Being British Grows Stronger It was their very strong sense of liberty that would lead these American colonists to resist the changes in British colonial policy that followed after completion of the war. They would approach their opposition to new regulations and taxes levied by Parliament rather than local assemblies as infringements of British liberty. The Colonies by 1763 – A New Society? (How did the American Colonies compare to Britain by 1763?) • Assess the validity of this statement. • “Between the settlement of Jamestown in 1607 and the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the most important change that occurred in the colonies was the extension of British ideals far beyond those envisioned in the mother country. Your response should address the following areas: religion, economics, politics, and social structure. The Colonies by 1763 – A New Society? (How did the American Colonies compare to Britain by 1763?) • “Between the settlement of Jamestown in 1607 and the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the most important change that occurred in the colonies was the extension of British ideals far beyond those envisioned in the mother country. • Changes in religion, economics, politics, and social structures illustrate this Americanization of the transplanted Europeans.” • It is in these changes that one sees the seeds of revolution planted. The Colonies by 1763 – A New Society? (How did the American Colonies compare to Britain by 1763?) • “By 1763, although some colonies still maintained established churches, other colonies had accomplished a virtual revolution for religious toleration and separation of church and state.” • There was far more religious liberty in the colonies. The Colonies by 1763 – A New Society? (How did the American Colonies compare to Britain by 1763?) • “In a similar economic revolution, the colonies outgrew their mercantile relationship with the mother country and developed an expanding capitalist system of their own.” • The colonies had many valuable resources that were in demand. They also had the ability to manufacture goods on their own, but were largely prevented from doing so because of the navigation Acts. • Most white men owned some land and prospered. • By the 1760s the colonies were at the point where their relationship with Britain was no longer an economic benefit, but more of a burden. They could profit more on their own. The Colonies by 1763 – A New Society? (How did the American Colonies compare to Britain by 1763?) • “Building on English foundations of political liberty, the colonists extended the concepts of liberty and self-government far beyond those envisioned in the mother country.” • The colonies had far more political liberty than Britain…far more men could vote in the colonies compared to Britain…13 colonial legislatures elected by majority of white males…liberty had come to also mean local self-gov’t The Colonies by 1763 – A New Society? (How did the American Colonies compare to Britain by 1763?) • “In contrast to the well-defined and hereditary classes of England, the colonies developed a fluid class structure which enabled the industrious individual to rise on the social ladder.” • The idea of a meritocracy, rather than an aristocracy, was becoming the norm in the colonies. The American colonists increasingly came to view one’s own efforts as the basis of judging one’s fitness. • In the colonies there MUCH MORE mobility. ( Weakened Loyalty to Britain Chapter 4, Section 1 • Now that the French no longer held Canada or the region west of the Appalachian Mountains, the colonists saw no reason why they should not expand and prosper on their own, with or without British help. These feelings would soon combine with events to expand the rift between Britain and its colonies. Britain Reevaluates its Policy toward the colonies Chapter 4, Section 1 • • How and why did Britain’s colonial policy change after 1763? “Having treated the colonists as allies during the war, Britain reverted in the mid 1760s to seeing them as subordinates whose main role was to enrich the mother country. During this period, the government in London concerned itself with the colonies in unprecedented ways, hoping to make British rule more efficient and systematic and to raise funds to help it pay for the war and to finance the empire. Nearly all British political leaders supported the laws that so enraged the colonists. Americans, Britons felt, should be grateful to the empire …. Britain had borrowed heavily to finance the war (the equivalent of tens of trillions of dollars in today’s money)…It seemed only reasonable that the colonies should help pay this national debt.” (GML, p.179) The French and Indian War-Assessment Chapter 4, Section 1 What tactic did the British use to win the city of Quebec? (A) They fought in the open, as was common in Europe. (B) They laid siege to the city. (C) They borrowed military tactics from the Iroquois. (D) They hid behind rocks and trees. How did the French and Indian War strain relations between the British and the American colonists? (A) The British believed that the colonists did not provide enough support. (B) The colonists felt a loss of respect for the British military. (C) The colonists wanted to expand and prosper on their own without the help of the British. (D) All of the above Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! The French and Indian War-Assessment Chapter 4, Section 1 What tactic did the British use to win the city of Quebec? (A) They fought in the open, as was common in Europe. (B) They laid siege to the city. (C) They borrowed military tactics from the Iroquois. (D) They hid behind rocks and trees. How did the French and Indian War strain relations between the British and the American colonists? (A) The British believed that the colonists did not provide enough support. (B) The colonists felt a loss of respect for the British military. (C) The colonists wanted to expand and prosper on their own without the help of the British. (D) All of the above Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Issues Behind the Revolution Chapter 4, Section 2 • How and why did British policies in the colonies change after 1763? • What were the causes and effects of the Stamp Act? • How did rising tensions in the colonies lead to fighting at Lexington and Concord? The Roots of the American Revolution • If you could go back in time to the American colonies in the 1750s and early 1760s, what would be the typical colonist’s view toward Britain and all things British? Proud to be British… • What was the typical colonial attitude toward Britain…? • “It has been said that the Americans were never more British than in 1763.” The colonists were proud of their English heritage. • The British empire also included close to 2.5 million American colonists prouder than ever to be British because they believed their freedom resulted from their equal status in an empire which allowed them a large degree of self-government and liberty. Great pride toward Britain and the British political system…desire to copy all things British…the colonists also saw themselves as British, not as Americans…They believed they were the freest and most prosperous people in the world… (Liberty meant being left alone. In real terms, liberty meant local self-gov’t) Signs of Inferiority • Were there any signs of strain between Britain and the colonies during this time? • There were some strains. There was a feeling, especially acute among the elite that Britain did not treat them with proper respect…feelings of inadequacy/inferiority…Some colonists had ignored the Navigation Acts…but for the most part, the colonists were very content. Road to Revolution • How and why did Britain’s colonial policy change after 1763? • “Having treated the colonists as allies during the war, Britain reverted in the mid 1760s to seeing them as subordinates whose main role was to enrich the mother country. During this period, the government in London concerned itself with the colonies in unprecedented ways, hoping to make British rule more efficient and systematic and to raise funds to help it pay for the war and to finance the empire. Nearly all British political leaders supported the laws that so enraged the colonists. Americans, Britons felt, should be grateful to the empire …. Britain had borrowed heavily to finance the war (the equivalent of tens of trillions of dollars in today’s money)…It seemed only reasonable that the colonies should help pay this national debt.” (GML, p.179, 3rd edition) Trouble Emerges • What happened after 1763 that started to sour the colonists’ feelings towards Britain? • Debt and the high cost of empire forced the British government to change its “hands-off” policy toward the colonies…stricter enforcement of Navigation Acts…new taxes • Britain reverted to treating the colonies as subordinates • The colonists viewed the changes as threats to their traditional English liberties. (And, as threats to their economic well-being.) Impact of Seven Years War: London’s solution and the colonists reaction • …How reasonable were London’s solutions, and in what ways did the colonists view them as attacks on their liberty? • “…Americans, Britons felt, should be grateful to the empire…” • “Having studied the writings of British opposition thinkers who insisted that power inevitably seeks to encroach upon liberty, colonial leaders came to see these measures as part of a British design to undermine their freedom.” Britain might have thought of the colonists as subordinates, but the colonials were fiercely proud to call themselves Englishmen. The colonists resisted all of the measures enacted by Parliament hoping to obtain their repeal and a restoration of salutary neglect. Eventually, the protests turned into rebellion and then a war for independence. (p.177 3rd Ed.) Changing British Policy Chapter 4, Section 2 • • • At the end of the French and Indian War, the Native Americans in the Great Lakes region were concerned about British interests. The British colonists were not hunters and traders like the French. As farmers, the British represented a much greater threat to Native American land and resources than did the French. The Native Americans tried to explain their concerns to British government officials, but the British government ignored them. In the spring of 1763, the Ottawa, Huron, Potawatomi, and other Indians in the Great Lakes region rebelled against British occupation. They destroyed every British fort in the region. The uprising was called Pontiac’s Rebellion, after one of the Ottawa leaders. In October, King George of Britain issued the Proclamation of 1763, closing the Great Lakes region to settlement by colonists. Colonists ignored the proclamation and other peace treaties between the British and Native Americans, and continued to settle in forbidden areas. Britain’s lack of success in halting the colonists’ migration further undermined its authority in America. Britain’s Financial Problems Chapter 4, Section 2 • The costs of governing and defending Britain’s vast empire made the British people the most heavily taxed people in the world. • By contrast, the American colonists paid only a small fraction in taxes of what Britons paid. • While Britain struggled with its heavy debts and taxes, its colonies in America were prospering. (Although their were still many Americans who struggled, and among many of the elites, growing indebtedness to British banks and/or merchants.) Britain’s Financial Problems Chapter 4, Section 2 • (Even before the war with France ended, there was a sign of what was to come.) • In 1761, the British government alarmed many colonists (especially those engaged in illegal trade) by issuing writs of assistance (blanket search warrants) aimed at the heart of smuggling. Britain’s Financial Problems Chapter 4, Section 2 • In response to Pontiac’s Rebellion Parliament moved to eliminate any further need to spend money on colonial defense. • The Proclamation of 1763 was one effort to reduce costs. By forbidding settlement of western lands, this law dealt a serious blow to the economic interests of land speculators (like George Washington), veterans of the French and Indian War who were promised land for service (including Washington, again), and families interested in acquiring a small piece of land and independence. The Proclamation of 1763 The Proclamation of 1763 was one effort to reduce costs. By forbidding settlement of western lands, this law dealt a serious blow to the economic interests of land speculators (like George Washington), veterans of the French and Indian War who were promised land for service (including Washington, again), and families interested in acquiring a small piece of land and independence. Most colonists, however, were unaffected. • e The Road to Revolution Britain’s Financial Problems Chapter 4, Section 2 • The British government also decided that the colonists should begin to pay some of the costs of their own government and defense. • The passage of the Sugar Act in 1764 marked the start of a new British policy designed to raise more income from the colonies. • The Quartering Act of 1765 required colonists to provide housing and supplies for British troops in America. • Colonists complained that the changes violated their rights as British subjects, but mostly they went along with them. Opposition to the next step was much stronger, however. The Stamp Act Crisis Chapter 4, Section 2 • When did the first real widespread protest against British authority occur? • In March 1765, the British Parliament passed the Stamp Act. This law placed a tax on newspapers, pamphlets, legal documents, and most other printed materials. The Stamp Act marked the first time that the British government (Parliament) taxed the colonists for the stated purpose of raising money. • The colonists objected to taxes that were not levied by their elected assemblies. Local self-gov’t was an important component of English liberty. The Stamp Act Crisis Chapter 4, Section 2 • The colonists’ reaction to the Stamp Act was widespread and extreme. In October 1765, delegates from nine colonies met in New York for a gathering that became known as the Stamp Act Congress. James Otis, a lawyer from Massachusetts, argued that Britain had no right to force laws on the colonies because the colonists had no representatives in the British Parliament. This argument called for “no taxation without representation.” • The only legitimate taxation was taxes levied by your locally elected representatives. Liberty and Resistance • What the American colonists meant by “no taxation w/out representation” was that only their locally elected legislators had the right to tax them. They did not really want representatives sent to far away Parliament. For nearly 150 years the colonists had established a strong tradition of local self-government. They, (primarily the colonial elite) taxed themselves. • “Nearly all Britons believed that Parliament represented the entire empire and had a right to legislate for it. The colonists rejected the British principle of “virtual representation.”(GML, p.170) Liberty and Resistance • “No word was more frequently invoked by critics of the Stamp Act than ‘liberty.’” • Liberty meant local self-government as well as the right to be largely left alone. • “As the crisis continued, symbols of liberty proliferated.” (GML, pgs.173-174) • “Colonial leaders resolved to prevent the new law’s implementation, and by and large they succeeded. Even before the passage of the Stamp Act, a Committee of Correspondence in Boston communicated with other colonies to encourage opposition to the Sugar and Currency Acts. Now, such committees sprang up in other colonies, exchanging ideas and information about resistance.” Liberty and Resistance • “Initiated by colonial elites, the movement against the Stamp Act quickly drew in a broader range of Americans.” • “The act, wrote John Adams, a Boston lawyer who drafted a set of widely reprinted resolutions against the measure, had inspired ‘the people, even the lowest ranks,’ to become ‘more attentive to their liberties, more inquisitive about them, and more determined to defend them, than they had ever before known.’” (GML, p.174) The Stamp Act Crisis and Politics in the Streets Chapter 4, Section 2 • What actions were taken in opposition to the Stamp Act other than the Stamp Act Congress and petitions sent by colonial assemblies? • • • • “Opponents of the Stamp Act, however, did not rely solely on debate. Even before the law went into effect, crowds forced those chosen to administer it to resign and destroyed shipments of stamps.” American merchants organized a boycott of British goods. A boycott is a refusal to buy certain products or use certain services as an act of protest. Groups, known as the Sons of Liberty and Daughters of Liberty, sprang up to enforce the boycott and organize other ways of resisting British policies. “As the assault on Thomas Hutchinson’s house in Boston demonstrated, crowds could get easily out of hand.” This alarmed the wealthy, including opponents of the Stamp Act. Sample Introduction • For over 150 years the colonists became accustomed to a large degree of self-rule. Despite their status as colonies subject to the authority of the King and Parliament, from their founding up until the 1760s, Great Britain largely left the colonies alone to govern themselves. Each colony had a legislature which included representatives elected by the male landowners of the colony. The only taxes the colonists paid that were not levied by their local assemblies were the small amount of taxes that were placed on the English goods imported into the colonies. After Britain’s victory over France in the Seven Years War, the British government changed its policy towards the colonies. The British victory over France was a costly one. Mired in enormous debt, Parliament and the King agreed on the need to tax the colonists and regulate them more closely. The colonists were outraged at this big change in their relationship with Britain. The protests that erupted following enactment of the Stamp Act were the beginnings of a final split with Britain. The Stamp Act Crisis and Politics in the Streets Chapter 4, Section 2 • By November 1765, when the Stamp Act was to take effect, most stamp distributors had resigned or fled, leaving no one to sell the stamps. In 1766, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act. • As a face saving measure, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act. This law reiterated Parliament’s right to legislate for the colonies in all matters – including taxation. Repeal of the Stamp Act/The Declaratory Act Chapter 4, Section 2 As a face saving measure, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act. This law reiterated Parliament’s right to legislate for the colonies in all matters – including taxation. And, yet the fact remained, Britain had enormous debt it needed to pay. • The colonists celebrated and toasted the King, but their celebration would be short lived. The Townshend Acts and Rising Tensions in the Colonies Chapter 4, Section 2 • In 1767, Parliament passed the Townshend Acts. The colonists protested these acts, which included import taxes on certain goods, such as glass and tea. Parliament passed these measures to deal with its financial problems (ex. debt, maintaining army in America). The Townshend Acts and Rising Tensions in the Colonies Chapter 4, Section 2 • Taking at their word American statements that they did not object to taxes on trade, the Townshend duties taxed goods imported into the colonies and established a new board of customs commissioners to collect the taxes, suppress smuggling, and raise funds to free judges and governors from their financial dependence on colonial assemblies. Rising Tensions in the Colonies Chapter 4, Section 2 • Parliament also stepped up the use of writs of assistance (general search warrants) to stop smuggling. • The colonists reiterated their opposition to “taxation without representation.” They saw Parliament’s actions as threats to their British liberties. Townshend Acts Increases Tensions • Although American merchants opposed the duties, the colonial opposition developed more slowly compared to the response to the Stamp Act. • A colonial boycott on imported British goods developed in Boston and spread to the southern colonies, where many southern planters hoped to use the boycott to reduce their debt to British merchants. Boycotters celebrated the virtue of American resistance and denigrated the luxury of British society by producing their own homespun clothing Townshend Acts Increases Tensions • Although urban artisans welcomed an end to competition from British imports and strongly supported non-importation, urban merchants were at first reluctant to honor the boycott, and in some cities extralegal committees and crowds attempted to enforce it. • Many elites were also reluctant to engage commoners, fearing what this might unleash. The Boston Massacre Chapter 4, Section 2 • • • British troops were sent to Boston, Massachusetts, to put down violent resistance to the Townshend Acts. In March 1770, a small crowd threatened the British soldiers. In what became known as the Boston Massacre, the soldiers opened fire and killed five colonists. The commander and eight soldiers were put on trial and defended by John Adams, who opposed both British policies and lower-class crowd actions against them. Though only two of the British soldiers were convicted of manslaughter, and the rest were found not guilty, Paul Revere and other colonists helped stir up indignation against the British through inaccurate but widely circulated propaganda depicting the incident as a massacre of unarmed Bostonians. The Boston Massacre British troops were sent to Boston, Massachusetts, to put down violent resistance to the Townshend Acts. In March 1770, a small crowd threatened the British soldiers. In what became known as the Boston Massacre, the soldiers opened fire and killed five colonists. • Propaganda? The Tea Act and the Boston Tea Party Chapter 4, Section 2 • Soon after the Boston Massacre, Parliament canceled all the Townshend taxes, except for the duty on tea. A period of calm settled over the colonies until late 1773. • In 1772 there was the Gaspee Incident in Rhode Island. A British ship that had pursued smugglers ran aground and was burned to the ground by angry colonists. The Tea Act and the Boston Tea Party Chapter 4, Section 2 • In May 1773, the Parliament passed the Tea Act, an act that gave a British company special tax exemption in the colonies. The Tea Act actually lowered the tax on British tea making it now cheaper than smuggled tea. • The American colonists protested. On December 16, 1773, colonists boarded three tea ships in Boston and dumped all of the tea into the harbor. This incident became known as the Boston Tea Party. Rising Tensions in the Colonies Chapter 4, Section 2 • In the spring of 1774, Parliament passed a series of laws known as the Coercive Acts to punish Massachusetts for the Tea Party. The measures seemed so harsh that the colonists called them the Intolerable Acts. • The Coercive Acts included the following: The port of Boston was closed down; the Massachusetts Assembly was disbanded; all town meetings were stopped; martial law was imposed in Boston; and an updated Quartering Act was instituted. Rising Tensions in the Colonies Chapter 4, Section 2 • On September 5, 1774, a gathering of 56 delegates met in Philadelphia in what became known as the First Continental Congress. These delegates were determined to show support for Massachusetts. The delegates decided to renew a boycott of British goods and organize armed militias. They also made a direct appeal to the king, outlining their grievances and asking for understanding. British Policies in the Colonies, 1764–1774 Chapter 4, Section 2 Fighting at Lexington and Concord Chapter 4, Section 2 • The Americans whom King George had labeled “rebels” called themselves Patriots. They followed the call of the First Continental Congress and began to form armed militias. • Massachusetts Patriots gathered guns and ammunition and stored a major stockpile in Concord, a town about 20 miles from Boston. On April 18, 1775, a force of about 800 British troops moved out of Boston to seize the weapons. Fighting at Lexington and Concord Chapter 4, Section 2 • Boston Patriots learned about the British soldiers’ plan. When the main British force arrived at Lexington, about five miles from Concord, they encountered an armed militia. The battles that ensued became known as the Battles of Lexington and Concord. • The Battles of Lexington and Concord sparked the Revolutionary War, which became a war for American independence from Britain. The Second Continental Congress • • When the Second Continental Congress met in May 1775, war had already begun between British soldiers and armed Massachusetts citizens. The previous month, British forces marching to Concord to seize arms in that town were met in Lexington by militiamen who tried to resist their advance. In Concord, the British were routed and after retreating to Boston, scores of militiamen and British troops had been killed or wounded. These skirmishes initiated the American War of Independence, and inspired colonists in New England and elsewhere to take up arms. New England militia laid siege to Boston and, after failed British attempts to break the siege and the arrival of cannon seized from the British by American militia at Fort Ticonderoga, the British abandoned the city. The Second Continental Congress • The Second Continental Congress soon authorized the raising of an army, the printing of money to pay for it, and appointed George Washington as its commander. Britain responded by declaring the colonies to be in a state of rebellion, and it closed all colonial ports and dispatched thousands of troops. The Second Continental Congress • “On June 17, 1775, two months after Lexington and Concord, the British had dislodged colonial militiamen from Breed’s Hill, although only at a heavy cost in British casualties. (The battle came to be named after the nearby Bunker Hill.) But the arrival of American cannon and their entrenchment above the city made the British position in Boston untenable…” • In March 1776, the British army abandoned Boston. British forces set their sights on New York. Did the outbreak of war convince the colonists to declare independence? • Despite the war’s outbreak, even most Patriots were reluctant to embrace independence from Great Britain in 1775. Many were still proud of British political institutions and culture and the power and glory of the British empire, and more than a few political leaders worried the rebellion might cause internal social conflict, particularly between elites and the disenfranchised and less wealthy Americans. • The aim of the colonists and their representatives in Congress was the restoration of traditional English liberties. (a return to salutary neglect) Independence? • Leaders in Massachusetts and Virginia, incensed by the Intolerable Acts and confident of their ability to retain authority in those colonies, supported independence, as did many southern leaders, particularly in Virginia, who guarded their political liberties and were enraged by a British proclamation in Virginia in late 1775 offering freedom to escaped slaves who enlisted in the royal army. Independence? • However, in New York and Pennsylvania, consensus was more difficult to establish. Opposition to British policies had animated small farmers and urban artisans, whose calls for a greater voice in political life prompted many leaders to hesitate to call for independence. (Fear of the masses.) Some in these colonies urged for compromise and predicted that a war would unleash fighting between the colonies. Issues Behind the Revolution-Assessment Chapter 4, Section 2 What event sparked Pontiac’s Rebellion? (A) The Tea Act (B) The Boston Massacre (C) The Proclamation of 1763 (D) British interests in the Great Lakes region Which battles sparked the Revolutionary War? (A) The battles against the Intolerable and Tea Acts (B) The Battles of Lexington and Concord (C) The Boston Massacres (D) The Battles of Lexington and Townshend Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Issues Behind the Revolution-Assessment Chapter 4, Section 2 What event sparked Pontiac’s Rebellion? (A) The Tea Act (B) The Boston Massacre (C) The Proclamation of 1763 (D) British interests in the Great Lakes region Which battles sparked the Revolutionary War? (A) The battles against the Intolerable and Tea Acts (B) The Battles of Lexington and Concord (C) The Boston Massacres (D) The Battles of Lexington and Townshend Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Ideas Behind the Revolution Chapter 4, Section 3 • What was the importance of Thomas Paine’s Common Sense? • What ideas and arguments are presented in the Declaration of Independence? • What advice did Abigail Adams give her husband regarding the Declaration? Common Sense • Common Sense, a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine, was an important document during the Revolution. Paine wrote about the importance of armed struggle against the British Empire and about the ideological importance of American independence. Common Sense • Paine asserted that the Patriots fight against British authority was really a battle between two very different political and social systems. This was a struggle matching monarchy and aristocracy on one side against democracy and meritocracy on the other. Common Sense Chapter 4, Section 3 • The pamphlet, written in a simple, direct style, appealed to the American people. Common Sense convinced many readers, including many who had favored a peaceful settlement with the British government, to support a complete—and likely violent—break with Britain. The Declaration of Independence Chapter 4, Section 3 • Common Sense appeared at the same time as the meeting of the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia. This Congress met less than a month after the Battles of Lexington and Concord, and it continued to meet throughout the Revolution. • The previous summer, Congress had sent an Olive Branch Petition to King George III of England. This petition, written by moderates, expressed the colonists’ loyalty to the king and requested a halt in fighting until a solution could be found. The king refused the petition. These actions set the stage for Common Sense. • King George III ignored the Olive Branch Petition. Common Sense Chapter 4, Section 3 • In January 1776 when Common Sense appeared it quickly became a best seller. Written by Thomas Paine , Common Sense was an attack on the entire British political and social system. “Far preferable than monarchy would be a democratic system based on frequent elections, with citizens’ rights protected by a written constitution.” (Give Me Liberty! E. Foner, p.185) Common Sense Chapter 4, Section 3 • Another key point Paine emphasized was that membership in the British empire was a burden, not a benefit. “Within the empire, America’s prospects were limited; liberated from the Navigation Acts and trading freely w/the entire world, its ‘material eminence’ was certain.” (GML, pgs.185, 188) Common Sense Chapter 4, Section 3 • “Toward the end of the pamphlet, Paine moved beyond practical considerations to outline a breathtaking vision of the historical importance of the American Revolution. ‘The cause of America, is in great measure, the cause of all mankind.’ The new nation would become the home of freedom, ‘an asylum for mankind.’” (GML, p.190) Thomas Paine’s Common Sense • Although most of Paine’s ideas were not original, he addressed them to all Americans and made it accessible by expressing them in a clear, direct and plain language unusual in most political writing at that time. Common Sense quickly became one of the most successful and influential pamphlets in the history of political writing. The intensification of the war, combined with Paine’s stirring appeal for independence, sparked more calls for independence in many American communities. Common Sense • Common Sense had something for every class of people upset w/Britain. Paine’s attack on hierarchy and privilege and call for a republic and a written constitution w/citizens’ rights spelled out especially appealed to the middle and lower ranks of men. They were also stirred by Paine’s call “to begin the world over again.” They saw in this the hope that independence from Britain would lead to a new society in America, one in which every man had an equal voice and opportunity. • For the elites that may have not liked Paine’s embrace of democracy, the arguments he made on the economic advantages of independence were very convincing. Common Sense • Common Sense helped make this conflict with Britain much more than just a dispute between elites; for many ordinary Patriots the struggle against Britain had become a war of independence and the first step toward building a new, democratic society. One could say, the dispute had become a revolution. Thomas Paine: Champion of Democracy • However, just because Paine and ordinary men saw the struggle as a revolution, doesn’t mean that the leaders of the Patriot cause felt the same way. Tom Paine • Paine depicted the king as an enemy of liberty. • He called for a republic where opportunity is based on merit not on inherited privilege. • He said the government should be elected by the common people. • He called for a written constitution. • Paine reinforced the Enlightenment idea that all men have natural rights. Moving to Independence • Was there still reluctance in Congress to declare independence from Britain following the publication of Common Sense? If so, why? • Yes…Leaders in Massachusetts and Virginia, incensed by the Intolerable Acts and confident of their ability to retain authority in those colonies, supported independence, as did many southern leaders, particularly in Virginia, who guarded their political liberties and were enraged by a British proclamation in Virginia in late 1775 offering freedom to escaped slaves who enlisted in the royal army. Reluctance to declare independence • However, in New York and Pennsylvania, consensus was more difficult to establish. Opposition to British policies had animated small farmers and urban artisans, whose calls for a greater voice in political life prompted many (elite) leaders to hesitate to call for independence. (Most elites feared the common people.) • Some in these colonies urged for compromise and predicted that a war would unleash fighting between the colonies. The Declaration of Independence Chapter 4, Section 3 • In June 1776, after more than a year of war, the Congress decided it was time for the colonies to cut ties with Britain. They prepared a statement of the reasons for separation—a Declaration of Independence. • On July 2, 1776, the Congress formally declared the United States as an independent nation. Two days later, it approved the Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson and revised by the Congress before approval. The Declaration of Independence Chapter 4, Section 3 • Most of the Declaration consists of a lengthy list of grievances directed at King George III… • “Britain’s aim, it declared, was to establish an ‘absolute tyranny’ over the colonies.” • “The Declaration’s enduring impact came not from the complaints against George III, but from the preamble, especially the second paragraph.” (GML, p.189) The Declaration and American Freedom • • • “The Declaration of Independence changed forever the meaning of American freedom. It completed the shift from the rights of Englishmen to the rights of mankind as the object of American independence…” “No longer a set of specific rights, no longer a privilege to be enjoyed by a corporate body or people in certain circumstances, liberty had become a universal entitlement.” “…when Jefferson substituted the ‘pursuit of happiness’ for property in the familiar Lockean triad that opens the Declaration, he tied the nation’s star to an open-ended, democratic process whereby individuals develop their own potential and seek to realize their own life goals. Individual self-fulfillment, unimpeded by government, would become a central element of American freedom.” (GML, p.190) An asylum for mankind • “A distinctive definition of nationality resting on American freedom was born in the American Revolution. From the beginning, the idea of ‘American exceptionalism’ – the belief that the USA has a special mission to serve as a refuge from tyranny, a symbol of freedom, and a model for the rest of the world – has occupied a central place in American nationalism….” • This idea of America as a special place goes back even before the English settled. It was viewed as a place where England’s poor could start over and live a full life. Puritan leader John Winthrop spoke of New England as “a city upon a hill.” The Puritans’ vision of America was centered on a religious mission. Paine’s Common Sense and Jefferson’s Declaration secularized the idea of America as a special place –as an exceptional place where liberty reigned. An asylum for mankind • “Paine’s remark in Common Sense, ‘we have it in our power to begin the world over again,’ and his description of the new nation as an ‘asylum for mankind,’ expressed that the Revolution was an event of global historical importance…Unburdened by the institutions – monarchy, aristocracy, hereditary privilege – that oppressed the peoples of the Old World, America and America alone was the place where the principles of universal freedom could take root.” (GML, p.190) America could stand as a model of liberty for the rest of the world. The Global Declaration of Independence • While American colonists were more interested in gaining international recognition and the military aid of other governments than they were in establishing human rights for all people everywhere, the Declaration’s words and ideas have been an inspiration to Americans and colonial peoples throughout the world who have sought independence. Flemish rebels, part of today’s Belgium and then part of the Austrian empire, echoed Jefferson’s words in declaring their rebellion in 1790, and by 1826, the year Jefferson died, twenty other declarations of independence had been issued in Europe, the Caribbean, and Spanish America. The Global Declaration of Independence • Revolutionaries in China in 1911 and in Vietnam in 1945 issued declarations influenced by the American predecessor. Although over time the natural rights that Jefferson asserted became less and less part of the declarations he helped inspire, the idea that legitimate political authority rests on the will of the people and that “the people” have rights has been adopted around the world, inspiring a diverse array of groups including Caribbean slaves, colonial subjects in India, and indigenous peoples of Latin America, to fight for their liberties. Summary: Significance of Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence • Paine condemned the English political and social system. Rather than being the source of liberty for American colonists, its allegiance to Britain would forever deny them true liberty. • Paine called for a complete separation from Britain. Separation would also benefit America economically by allowing it to trade freely. • The new American nation, Paine asserted, should be “a democratic system based on frequent elections, with citizens’ rights protected by a written constitution.” Summary: Significance of Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence • Paine began the process of secularizing “‘American exceptionalism’ – the belief that the U.S. has a special mission to serve as a refuge from tyranny, a symbol of freedom, and a model for the rest of the world.” • The Declaration seemed to commit the new nation to Paine’s vision. It also provided the ideas (equality, self-gov’t, unimpeded pursuit of one’s dreams, the right to rebel against unjust gov’t) that marginalized groups, both here and around the world have used to win their liberty. Summary: Significance of Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence • The Declaration seemed to commit the new nation to Paine’s vision. It also provided the ideas (equality, self-gov’t, unimpeded pursuit of one’s dreams, the right to rebel against unjust gov’t) that marginalized groups, both here and around the world have used to win their liberty. Drafting the Declaration • • • • Thomas Jefferson’s political ideas were influenced by the Enlightenment, an eighteenth-century European movement that emphasized science and reason as keys to improving society. Jefferson divided the Declaration into four sections: – The preamble, or introduction, explained the Declaration’s purpose. – In the declaration of rights, Jefferson drew heavily on the writings of John Locke. Locke believed that people have natural rights—rights that belong to them simply because they are human. Jefferson called these unalienable rights, meaning rights that could not be taken away. – In the complaints against the king, Jefferson wrote that public officials must make decisions based on the law, not on their own personal wishes. He called this a rule of law. – The resolution, in declaring the colonies free and independent states, concluded the Declaration. Jefferson’s document not only declared the nation’s independence, it also defined the basic principles on which American government and society would rest. Congressional delegates voted to approve the Declaration on July 4, 1776. The Foundations of Democracy Chapter 4, Section 3 “Remember the Ladies” Chapter 4, Section 3 • • • • • In the 1770s, John Adams was one of the leaders of the opposition to British rule. His wife, Abigail Adams, expressed her opinions about independence in a letter to him. In this letter Abigail asked John to “Remember the Ladies” in the new code of law. She asked him not to put unlimited power in the hands of husbands. Her complaints about the status of women in the society employed the same ideas that men were using in their fight against Great Britain. Abigail suggested that it was time to rethink the relationship between men and women. Earlier in the same letter, Abigail raised the issue of slavery. She felt it contradictory for the delegates to speak of liberty for themselves and not for all. However, John felt that the question of slavery would divide the delegates when unity was most crucial for success. The questions raised by Abigail Adams, of liberty and equality for all people, were very important. However, John Adams believed that it was more important to win the war than to engage in a debate about liberty for all. Ideas Behind the Revolution-Assessment Chapter 4, Section 3 What was the impact of Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense? (A) Common Sense explained “no taxation without representation” to the British Parliament. (B) Common Sense helped the colonists understand the ancient Greek system of democracy. (C) Common Sense provided the inspiration for the Olive Branch Petition. (D) Common Sense convinced many readers to support a break with Britain. Which of the following writers influenced the Declaration of Independence? (A) Oliver Cromwell (B) Nicolo Machiavelli (C) John Locke (D) Ernest Hemingway Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Ideas Behind the Revolution-Assessment Chapter 4, Section 3 What was the impact of Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense? (A) Common Sense explained “no taxation without representation” to the British Parliament. (B) Common Sense helped the colonists understand the ancient Greek system of democracy. (C) Common Sense provided the inspiration for the Olive Branch Petition. (D) Common Sense convinced many readers to support a break with Britain. Which of the following writers influenced the Declaration of Independence? (A) Oliver Cromwell (B) Nicolo Machiavelli (C) John Locke (D) Ernest Hemingway Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Fighting for Independence Chapter 4, Section 4 • What happened during the Siege of Boston? What was its outcome? • What were the strengths and weaknesses of the British and American forces? • Why was the Battle of Saratoga considered a turning point of the war? The Siege of Boston Chapter 4, Section 4 • • • • Following the clashes at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, some 20,000 Patriots surrounded Boston and prevented the almost 6,000 British troops, under General Thomas Gage, from quickly crushing the rebellion. In June 1775, the British and Americans fought for control of two strategically important hills north of Boston: Breed’s Hill and Bunker Hill. The British won the Battle of Bunker Hill, but victory came at a high cost. Almost half of the British soldiers (nearly 1,100 of 2,400) were killed or wounded. Patriot casualties— persons killed, wounded, or missing—numbered fewer than 400. The remaining British troops were pinned down in Boston for the next nine months. In July 1775, George Washington arrived and, as newly named commanding general of the Patriot forces, worked to transform the militia groups into the Continental Army. In March 1776, the British abandoned Boston. The British fleet moved the army to the Canadian city of Halifax, taking along some 1,000 Loyalists, or people who remained loyal to Great Britain. During the Revolution some Loyalists fled to England, the West Indies, or Canada. Many others remained in the colonies. Strengths and Weaknesses Chapter 4, Section 4 The British • The British had a well-trained and equipped army, and the finest navy in the world. • The British also had assistance from Loyalists, some African Americans, most Native Americans, and 30,000 mercenaries—foreign soldiers who fight for pay. • Weaknesses: The war was unpopular at home. Many British citizens resented paying taxes to fight the war and sympathized with the Americans. Additionally, British troops had to fight in hostile territories and did not adapt their tactics to conditions in America. The Americans • Patriot forces were fighting on their own territory. • Many officers were familiar with fighting tactics from the French and Indian War. • More African Americans served with American forces than with the British. • Weaknesses: For much of the war, the Americans lacked a wellequipped and effective fighting force. New recruits were constantly arriving, while experienced soldiers were heading home. War for Independence, 1775-1778 Chapter 4, Section 4 Fighting in the North Chapter 4, Section 4 • • By the winter of 1776, the British army had captured New York City and had pushed the Continental Army into Pennsylvania. Many troops deserted the Continental Army, and the Patriot cause seemed on the point of collapse. Fearing for their safety, the Continental Congress fled Philadelphia. Lacking adequate financial support, supplies, and experienced troops, George Washington had to be innovative. He abandoned the army tradition of not fighting during winter and led his troops across the Delaware River on Christmas night. Early the next morning, the American troops landed in New Jersey and surprised about 1,400 mercenaries—called Hessians because they were mostly from the German province of Hesse. The battle that followed was called the Battle of Trenton, in which nearly the entire Hessian force was captured and the Americans suffered only five casualties. Fighting in the North: The Importance of Trenton and Princeton Chapter 4, Section 4 • A similar victory in Princeton, New Jersey, boosted Patriot morale and convinced more Americans to support the Patriot cause. This gave new life to the cause of independence. Victory at Saratoga Chapter 4, Section 4 • • • • Despite the increasing Patriot numbers and the victories in New Jersey, the Patriots still suffered defeats. British General Howe was advancing to capture Philadelphia, and another British army, led by General John Burgoyne, was attempting to cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. As General Burgoyne moved south from Canada, his troops captured Fort Ticonderoga and moved south through Albany, New York. In mid-September 1777, the Americans, led by General Horatio Gates, attacked and defeated Burgoyne’s forces in New York. This series of American victories is called the Battle of Saratoga. Burgoyne, surrounded by a force much larger than his own, surrendered on October 17. This was the biggest American victory yet, and a turning point in the war. The American victory at Saratoga brought a foreign power to aid the American cause. France openly entered the war on the side of the Americans, followed by Spain and the Netherlands. These alliances provided the Americans with much needed supplies, troops, and a navy. In addition, Britain now had to defend itself in Europe. Fighting for Independence-Assessment Chapter 4, Section 4 Loyalists were ______________. (A) people loyal to the Patriots’ cause (B) people loyal to Great Britain (C) people loyal to the Native American nations (D) people loyal to Canadian independence Which victory brought a foreign power to aid the American cause? (A) The Battle of Saratoga (B) The Battle of Trenton (C) The Battle of Bunker Hill (D) The Siege of Boston Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Fighting for Independence-Assessment Chapter 4, Section 4 Loyalists were ______________. (A) people loyal to the Patriots’ cause (B) people loyal to Great Britain (C) people loyal to the Native American nations (D) people loyal to Canadian independence Which victory brought a foreign power to aid the American cause? (A) The Battle of Saratoga (B) The Battle of Trenton (C) The Battle of Bunker Hill (D) The Siege of Boston Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Winning Independence Chapter 4, Section 5 • What hardships did the Americans endure during the war? • How did American victories in the West and South lead to an end to the war? • What was the impact of the American Revolution? Americans Endure Hardships Chapter 4, Section 5 • Although the British had seized New York, Philadelphia, and almost every other important colonial city, George Washington knew that the Americans would win the war because they had the determination to outlast their rulers. • A major source of hardship for Washington’s army was the lack of financial support from the Continental Congress. The Congress had very little real power. Congress could ask the states to provide troops, money, and supplies, but without taxation power, it could not force them to do so. Americans Endure Hardships Chapter 4, Section 5 • The civilians suffered hardships too. During the war, the British navy blockaded, or cut off from outside contact, the Atlantic Coast, which severely disrupted American trade. • Necessities were scarce. A few colonists took advantage of these shortages by profiteering, or selling scarce items at unreasonably high prices. Washington suggested that profiteers should be hanged. • Even when goods were available, it was not always possible to buy them. Inflation, a steady increase in prices over time, reduced people’s ability to buy goods. In Massachusetts, for example, the price of a bushel of corn rose from less than $1 in 1777 to almost $80 in 1779. Victories in the West and South Chapter 4, Section 5 • The Patriots, with the help of the French army, won important victories in the West and the South, culminating with the Battle of Yorktown: – In August 1781, British General Cornwallis set up camp at Yorktown, Virginia, to reinforce his troops and wait for the Royal navy to arrive. – Washington, who was in the North, saw the opportunity to deal the British a fatal blow. A French army had just joined the Continental Army in New York. Washington moved the combined troops south (toward Yorktown), while the French fleet set up a blockade off the Virginia coast to block British ships. – A few days later, Washington’s troops arrived to reinforce American forces at Yorktown. Cornwallis now faced an army more than twice the size of his own. – With land and sea escape routes blocked, Cornwallis realized that escape was impossible. On October 19, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered to Washington. The Treaty of Paris Chapter 4, Section 5 • • Nearly two years passed between the surrender of Cornwallis and the signing of the peace treaty that ended the war. Four nations were involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, and the United States. The Treaty of Paris (1783) contained these major provisions: – Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States of America. – The northern border between the United States and Canada was set from New England to the Mississippi River, primarily along the Great Lakes. – The Mississippi River was set as the border between the United States and Spanish territory to the West. Navigation on the river was open to American and British citizens. – Florida, which Britain had gained from the Spanish, was returned to Spain. – Britain agreed to withdraw its remaining troops from United States territory. – The Congress pledged to recommend to the states that the rights and property of American Loyalists be restored and that no future action be taken against them. The Impact of the Revolution Chapter 4, Section 5 • The Revolution did more than establish American independence. It also helped inspire Americans’ patriotism. Patriotism is the passion that inspires a person to serve his or her country, either in defending it from invasion, or protecting its rights and maintaining its laws or institutions. • For women, the Revolution did not produce any immediate gains. However, experiences during the war did challenge some of the traditional ideas about women. • For African Americans the results of the Revolution were mixed. Most northern states abolished slavery, although outside of New England emancipation was gradual. Southern states remained committed to slavery, although there was an uptick in manumissions in the Upper South. The Impact of the Revolution Chapter 4, Section 5 • • • For Native Americans the war’s outcome was a disaster. The power of the Iroquois League was destroyed, and Americans justified their attacks on Cherokees, Shawnees, and other Indians by pointing out these nations’ support for the British. Perhaps the greatest effect of the Revolution was to spread the idea of liberty, both at home and abroad. (Ordinary white males would be the first beneficiaries of greater liberty.) Thomas Jefferson’s assertion that “all men are created equal” set in motion challenges to the established order. Over time it has provided justification to many groups, both within the US and outside, in their struggles for equal rights. The American victory also helped to give credibility to the idea of American exceptionalism. After all, only an exceptional people could have defeated mighty Britain. The Revolution Within • “As Abigail Adams’ letter to her husband, in which she admonished “remember the ladies” reminds us, the struggle for American liberty emboldened other colonists to demand more liberty for themselves. All revolutions enlarge the public sphere, inspiring previously marginalized groups to express their own dreams for freedom. At a time when so many Americans – slaves, indentured servants, women, Indians, apprentices, propertyless men – were denied full freedom, the struggle against Britain threw into question many forms of authority and inequality.” (GML, p.202) The Dream of Freedom • “With its wide distribution of property, lack of hereditary aristocracy, and established churches far less powerful than in Britain, America was a society with deep democratic potential. But it took a struggle for independence to transform it into a nation that celebrated equality and opportunity. The Revolution unleashed public debate and political and social struggles that enlarged the scope of freedom and challenged inherited structures of power within America.” (GML, p.203) • “Jefferson’s assertion in the Declaration that all men are created equal announced a radical principle whose full implications no one could anticipate….Inequality had been fundamental to the colonial social order; the Revolution challenged it in many ways.” p.203 The Revolution Within • • Egalitarianism among Whites Although there was no significant redistribution of wealth in America during the Revolution, the Declaration of Independence’s bold assertion that all men are created equal did promote more egalitarian attitudes. The upper classes found it prudent to simplify their standard of living and treat common people with respect. Ordinary folks were less likely to defer to their “betters” or automatically leave governing to them. Americans began to feel that political leaders should come from the “natural aristocracy” – that is, men who demonstrated virtue, accomplishments, and dedication to the public good. The new egalitarianism did not include women, blacks, Indians and propertyless whites. Expanding the Political Nation • “With liberty and equality as their rallying cries, previously marginalized groups advanced their demands. Long accepted relations of dependency and restrictions on freedom suddenly appeared illegitimate – a process not intended by most of the leading patriots. In political, social, and religious life, Americans challenged the previous domination by a privileged few. In the end, the Revolution did NOT undo the obedience to which male heads of household were entitled from their wives and children, and, at least in the southern states, their slaves. For free white men, however, the democratization of freedom was dramatic. Nowhere was this more evident that in challenges to the traditional limitation of political participation to those who owned property.” (GML, p.203) •Democratic Patriots like Thomas Paine wanted more power for common people. •They favored: • weak state governments with most of their power in a popularly elected legislature. • unicameral or one house legislature with either a weak governor or none at all. • a large House of Representatives with small districts so that the people had more control. • a governor with broad powers. •Conservative Patriots like John Adams feared giving power to the common people. •They favored (balanced government): • bicameral legislature, with two houses. • an upper house or senate made up of wealthy, well-educated gentlemen who would balance a lower house elected by the common people. The Revolution in Pennsylvania • “The Revolution’s radical potential was more evident in Pennsylvania than in any other state…” • “Three months after independence, Penn. adopted a new state constitution that sought to institutionalize democracy by concentrating power in a one-house legislature elected annually by all men over 21 who paid taxes. It abolished the office of governor, dispensed with property qualifications for officeholders, and provided that schools with low fees be established in every county. It also included a bill of rights.” (GML, p.205) The New Constitutions • • “Like PA, every state adopted a new constitution in the aftermath of independence. Nearly all Americans now agreed that their governments must be republics…But as to how a republican government should be structured as to promote the public good, there was much disagreement.” “John Adams’s Thoughts on Government called for a ‘balanced government’ whose structure would reflect the division between the wealthy (represented in the upper house) and ordinary men (who would control the lower). A powerful governor and judiciary would ensure that neither class infringed on the liberty of the other. Adams’s call for twohouse legislatures was followed by every state except PA, GA, and VT. But only his state (MA) gave the governor an effective veto…Americans had come to believe that excessive royal authority had undermined British liberty…They preferred power to rest with the legislature.” pgs.205-206 The Right to Vote • “The provisions of the new constitutions reflected the balance of power between advocates of internal change and those who feared excessive democracy…” • “The most democratic new constitutions moved much of the way toward the idea of voting as an entitlement rather than as a privilege, but they generally stopped short of universal suffrage, even for free men…” p.206 • “Overall, the Revolution led to a great expansion of the right to vote. By the 1780s, with the exception of VA, MD, and NY, a large majority of adult white males could meet voting requirements…” • “…freedom and an individual’s right to vote had become interchangeable.” (GML, p.207) The Impact of the Revolution • What were some important changes that took place in the States in the years following the Dec. of Ind.? – Liberalized voting laws increased political participation and power among a new middle class. – An expanding economic middle class of farmers and craft workers counterbalanced the power of the old elite of professionals and wealthy merchants. The middle class were now dominating state legislatures in most northern states, and gaining a greater share of seats in the South. (The elites did not like this.) – Ideas of equality spread and democracy took hold. •Pearson Power Shift: From the Elites to the Middle Ranks •Pearson Power Shift: Democratization Toward Religious Toleration • “As remarkable as the expansion of political freedom was the Revolution’s impact on American religion.” (p.207) • “The end of British rule immediately threw into question the privileged position enjoyed by the Anglican Church in many colonies... Many of the leaders of the American Revolution considered it essential for the new nation to shield itself from the unruly passions and violent conflicts that religious differences had inspired during the past three centuries. Men like Jefferson, Adams, Madison, and Hamilton believed religion necessary as a foundation of public morality. But they viewed religious doctrines through the Enlightenment lens of rationalism and skepticism.” Toward Religious Toleration and Liberty • “The drive to separate church and state brought together Deists like Jefferson, who hoped to erect a ‘wall of separation’ that would free politics and the exercise of the intellect from religious control, with members of evangelical sects, who sought to protect religion from the corrupting embrace of government.” (GML, p.209) • “The movement toward religious freedom received a major impetus during the revolutionary era. Throughout the new nation, states disestablished their established churches – that is, deprived them of public funding and special legal privileges…” Toward Religious Toleration and Liberty • Yet religious toleration was far from universal. Every state except New York retained laws barring Jews from voting and holding office, and seven states limited office-holding to Protestants. Massachusetts retained its Congregational establishment well into the nineteenth century. Catholics, however, gained the right to worship freely throughout the former colonies. Toward Religious Toleration and Liberty • Thomas Jefferson was an important figure in the advancement of religious liberty. In 1779, he wrote a “Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom” for the Virginia legislature. It was adopted in 1786, only after much controversy. Jefferson saw established churches as tyrannies that constrained free thought, and the bill eliminated religious requirements for voting and office-holding government financial support for churches. Religious liberty became the model for the revolutionary generation’s definition of rights as private matters to be protected from government. In a very Christian but not very pious United States, the separation of church and state drew a line between public authority and a private sphere in which rights existed as a limitation on government power. Toward Religious Toleration and Liberty • While the Revolution expanded religious freedom, its emphasis on individual rights also challenged religious institutions and authority. In some churches, such as the Moravians who migrated to American from Germany, younger members of the community insisted that they had the liberty to conduct their own affairs, including arranging their own marriages. Yet, by allowing for the growth of different denominations, the separation of church and state actually expanded religion’s influence in American society. Anglicans, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists faced growing dissent from sects such as the Baptists and the Universalists. A Virtuous Citizenry • Though they separated church and state, the revolution’s leaders were not anti-religious. Most were devout Christians, and even Deists who opposed organized churches thought that religious values were the foundation of a republic’s morality. Some states continued to bar non-Christians from political office and prosecute people for blasphemy or violating the Sabbath. • Revolutionary leaders worried about the character of citizens, especially their virtue— their ability to sacrifice self-interest for the public good. Some promoted free public schools as a way to prepare citizens for a civic life of participation in government required of a free people. Toward Free labor • • The Revolution also redefined and reshaped economic freedom. Slavery was only one of many kinds of unfree labor in colonial America, but after the revolution the decline of indentured servitude and apprenticeship, and the transformation of paid domestic service into a job for black and white women, made unfree labor for white men increasingly rare. As wage labor became more common, and as republican citizenship seemed more and more incompatible with the restraints of apprenticeship and indentured servitude, more white men insisted on economic freedom. By 1800, when indentured servitude had virtually ceased to exist in America, a distinction had hardened between freedom and slavery and a northern economy based on “free labor” (working for a wage or owning a farm or shop) and a southern economy based on slave labor. The Soul of a Republic • The question of what constituted the social conditions of freedom greatly interested Americans in the revolutionary period. Many believed a republic could not survive with a large number of dependent citizens who, being subject to the power and influence of superior and independent men, would be corrupted. • “At the Revolution’s radical edge, some patriots believed that government had a responsibility to limit accumulations of property in the name of equality.” The Soul of a Republic • “To most free Americans, …’equality’ meant equal opportunity, rather than equality of condition.” (GML, p.213) • Men such as Thomas Jefferson saw land ownership for all white men as the key to ensuring a republican future for the nation. Jefferson even proposed giving 50 acres of land to “every person of full age” who did not already possess it. • Many Americans thought the abundance of land, much of it occupied by Indians, would ensure republican liberty and social equality. The Politics of Inflation and the Debate Over Free Trade • By 1779, inflation was so great that Congress asked the states to pass laws fixing wages and prices, a move embodying the idea that a republican government should promote the public good, not the self-interest of individuals. • But some Americans arguing for free trade believed that prosperity flowed from economic self-interest. Readers of Adam Smith’s treatise, The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, were influenced by his arguments that the “invisible hand” of the free market directed economic life more fairly and effectively than government intervention. They argued that once America’s trade was independent from British control, the natural workings of the economy would ensure the nation’s prosperity. The Loyalist’s Plight • The Revolutionary war took on the quality of a civil war in some places. Neighbors intimidated and assaulted each other. Pacifists who refused to bear arms were arrested, and their property seized. Many states required oaths of allegiance, and those who refused were stripped of their voting rights or expelled. Some Loyalists had their property confiscated. When the war ended, almost 100,000 Loyalists were exiled or voluntarily emigrated from the United States. Loyalists who stayed were reintegrated into American society. The Indian’s Revolution • The Indians particularly faced the Revolution as a loss of freedom. Between the Proclamation of 1763 and the American Revolution, colonists continued to move westward and claim Indian lands east of the Mississippi. Many leaders in the Revolution, including George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, were deeply involved in western land speculation, and British efforts to restrain land speculation was a major grievance of the Virginians supporting independence. Different Indian tribes backed the British or the Americans in the conflict, and some tribes like the Iroquois split internally over the war, and fought each other. Both the Americans and their Indian enemies inflicted atrocities on each other and civilians. White Freedom, Indian Freedom • Independence created state governments that were democratically accountable to voters who wanted Indian lands. Many, including Thomas Jefferson, saw the war as an opportunity to secure more land and “liberty” for white Americans by expelling or conquering the Indians. The Treaty of Paris marked the end of a process whereby power in eastern North America moved from Indians to white Americans. Limiting the British in eastern North America to Canada, the agreement led the British to abandon their Indian allies and recognized American sovereignty over the entire region east of the Mississippi river, disregarding the natives who lived there. For Indians, on other hand, freedom meant independence and possession of their own land, and they used Americans’ language of liberty to defend themselves. A Revolution for Black Americans • • In 1776 blacks accounted for 20% of the U.S. population, and almost all of them were enslaved. The Declaration of Independence’s words about equality made some Whigs (opponents of British authority) uneasy about slavery. By making liberty an absolute value and defining freedom as a universal entitlement, rather than a set of rights limited to a particular place or people, the Revolution inevitably led to questions about slavery and its status in the new nation. Before independence, slavery was rarely discussed in public, even though enlightened opinion had come to see the institution as immoral, inefficient, and a relic of ancient barbarism. Quakers in the late 1600s had protested slavery, and by the American Revolution many Pennsylvania Quakers had come to oppose slavery. Only with the Revolution, however, did slavery emerge as a subject of public debate and controversy. A Revolution for Black Americans • “The Revolution inspired widespread hopes that slavery could be removed from American life. Most dramatically, slaves themselves appreciated that by defining freedom as a universal right, the leaders of the Revolution had devised a weapon that could be used against their own bondage….As early as 1766, white Charlestonians had been shocked when their opposition to the Stamp Act inspired a group of blacks to parade about the city crying ‘Liberty.’” British Emancipation • Although 5,000 slaves fought for American independence, by which some gained their freedom, many more slaves obtained their liberty by siding with the British. Several proclamations by British generals offered freedom to slaves who enlisted in the British military. Nearly 100,000 slaves, including many in Georgia and South Carolina, escaped and fled to British lines. Although by the end of the war many had been recaptured, nearly 20,000 former slaves faced being returned to their owners, like George Washington, who insisted that they rejoin their owners. But the British refused, and many emigrated to England or other British colonies. Voluntary Emancipation • The Revolution momentarily seemed to threaten the perpetuation of slavery. During the war, most states banned or discouraged the further importation of African slaves, and the conflict devastated many southern plantations. In the 1780s, a significant number of slaveholders, especially in Virginia and Maryland, emancipated their slaves. This happened only very rarely in the other southern states. A Revolution for Black Americans • “The first concrete steps toward emancipation in revolutionary America were ‘freedom petitions’ – arguments for liberty presented to New England’s courts and legislatures in the early 1770s by enslaved African Americans.” (GML, p.224) • The Massachusetts Supreme Court ordered the emancipation of slaves in 1783 after a series of cases were brought forth by slaves claiming their enslavement violated the principles of the state constitution (which incorporated the ideals of the Declaration of independence). A Revolution for Black Americans • Then, between 1777 and 1810, all northern states instituted gradual emancipation. No southern states, however, outlawed bondage. Several did make the voluntary freeing of slaves easier, and by 1790 about 5% of Virginia’s and Maryland’s blacks had been freed. Most free blacks remained poor laborers, domestics, or tenant farmers. Although most states granted freedmen certain civil rights, blacks continued in other respects to be treated as second class citizens. Abolition in the North • The Revolution had a contradictory impact on American slavery and American freedom. Emancipation in the North, however gradual, came to distinguish free from slave states, and northern abolition, voluntary emancipation in the south, and slave escapees created large free black communities for the first time in American history. Free black communities had their own leaders and established their own independent churches and schools. In all new states except Maryland, South Carolina, and Georgia, free black men who met taxpaying or property requirements could vote. • Nevertheless, slavery survived the revolutionary war and thrived in its aftermath. By 1790, there were 700,000 slaves in the United States—200,000 more than had existed in 1776. Daughters of Liberty • Gender roles would also change as a result of the Revolutionary War. During the conflict, many women accepted new roles as heads of households, active business partners, spies, or producers for the army. While some women reverted back to their traditional roles, others seized the new opportunities before them. The same Enlightenment and republican ideals that had shaped the revolutionary push for independence now inspired many women to secure their newly won sense of independence by expressing the ideal of “republican womanhood.” “Republican” motherhood • Some women fought for greater equality within the marriage and sought an end to the law of coverture that denied women their legal identity once married. The wives of loyalists even gained the right to keep the property of their husbands who fled. “Republican wives” and “republican mothers” would bear the moral responsibility of nurturing their husbands and sons to prepare them for their place in society as virtuous republicans. Such thinking led to calls for more personal independence and educational opportunities that would persist well into the next century. Republican Motherhood • Nevertheless, gender remained an important boundary of freedom in America. Independence did not change the family law inherited from Britain. Husbands still held legal authority over the body, property, and choices of their wives. While political freedom for men meant the right to self-government and consent over the political arrangements that ruled over them, for women the marriage contract was more important than the social contract. Women’s relationship to the society was mediated through her relationship to her husband. Republican Motherhood • Women lacked the essential basis of political participation—autonomy founded on property ownership or control over one’s own person. Most men considered women naturally submissive and irrational, and therefore unfit for citizenship. Public debate in the revolutionary era saw men’s rights as natural entitlements. Women’s role was viewed in terms of duty and obligations, and their rights flowed from their roles as wives and mothers. By definition, the republican citizen was male. Winning Independence-Assessment Chapter 4, Section 5 Selling scarce items at unreasonably high prices is know as ___________. (A) inflation (B) profiteering (C) blockading (D) price indexing The peace treaty that ended the war was called ___________________. (A) the Treaty of Yorktown (B) the Treaty of Cornwallis (C) the Treaty of Saratoga (D) the Treaty of Paris Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Winning Independence-Assessment Chapter 4, Section 5 Selling scarce items at unreasonably high prices is know as ___________. (A) inflation (B) profiteering (C) blockading (D) price indexing The peace treaty that ended the war was called ___________________. (A) the Treaty of Yorktown (B) the Treaty of Cornwallis (C) the Treaty of Saratoga (D) the Treaty of Paris Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here!