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Modern European History I HIS-106 Unit 9 – The Enlightenment The Enlightenment Enlightenment Intellectual and cultural movement of the 18th century Used Scientific Revolution to reexamine all aspects of life Period of skepticism and criticism of traditional values, beliefs, and institutions Discarded dogma, superstition, and the opinions of others Goal: gain an understanding solely through the use of reason Main concerns of Enlightened thinkers: Danger of unchecked and arbitrary authority Value of religious toleration Importance of natural law, reason, and human dignity Characteristics of the Enlightenment Not all thinkers shared the same ideas Had confidence in the power of human reason Stems from the accomplishments of the Scientific Revolution Declared their independence from the past Some actually criticized the ideas There were similar characteristics Gave a level of self-confidence thinkers did not have before Believed reason needed autonomy and freedom “Dare to Know!” (Immanuel Kant) Were indebted to their immediate predecessors Voltaire’s “Holy Trinity”: Locke, Bacon, and Newton Characteristics of the Enlightenment Applied the scientific method to the organization of knowledge Evidence was collected on the rise and fall of nations Government constitutions were compared “Cultural project” of the Enlightenment Used practical, applied knowledge to help spread knowledge and free public discussion Wanted “To change the common way of thinking” (Diderot) Wrote for a larger audience, which included the average educated person Some would use satire and fiction as a way of bringing this message to more people Leading to Enlightenment England was the starting point for the Enlightenment French philosophes examined England During 17th century, progressive ideas and developments Home of Newton and Locke Impact of the Glorious Revolution (1688) Voltaire visited there and praised its system Montesquieu used it as the basis of his separation of powers Paths to the Enlightenment: Popularization of science Rise of a new skepticism Impact of travel literature Legacy of Newton and Locke Bernand de Fontenelle (1657-1757) Popularization of Science Science during the 17th century did not affect the masses Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757) Works of natural philosophers only affected a small minority Most of what was written could not be understood by the average person Secretary of the French Royal Academy of Science (1691-1741) Main contribution was bringing science to the upper class Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686) Written in French instead of Latin More accessible to the non-scientific population Story is about how a man explains the heliocentric view of the universe in layman’s terms to his lover Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) A New Skepticism Major impact of the Scientific Revolution was the population becoming more educated The more people knew about nature and the universe, the more they started to question religious truths and doctrines This led to growing secularization and the rise of skepticism Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) French Huguenot scholar and philosopher Attacked many of the traditional religious attitudes: superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism Said that you cannot prove which beliefs are true and false Therefore, all beliefs should be tolerated A New Skepticism Morality was separate from religious beliefs A group of atheists could be more moral than a group of Christians Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697) Starts to question the sources of the Bible Israeli King David was not the heroic king so often portrayed In actuality, he was a vicious leader who pillaged, tortured, and murdered innocent victims The book was banned in France Placed on the Index of Prohibited Books shortly after it was published Captain James Cook (1728-1779) Impact of Travel Literature During this period, travel literature was popular Many explorers began to publish accounts of their travels Examined the new cultures of the world Showed how advanced some of them were China was considered a highly developed civilization with a morally superior form of religion in their Confucianism Other cultures became known and respected This led to the rise of cultural relativism Were more simpler than European ones and they were happier “The life of savages is so simple, and our societies are such complicated machines!...They understand nothing about our manner or our laws, and they are bound to see in them nothing but shackles disguised in a hundred different ways.” Impact of Travel Literature Captain James Cook (1728-1779) Captain of H.M. Bark Endeavour Traveled around the world three times Discovered New Zealand, Tahiti, and eastern shore of Australia Charted most of the south Pacific “Endeavour” Journals (1768-1771) Written during his first voyage around the world Focused on his discoveries in the Pacific Discussed the use citrus fruits to help ward off scurvy Also how he kept his crew in shape through exercise His book became a best seller John Locke (1632-1704) The Legacy of Newton and Locke Both gave the intellectual inspiration for the Enlightenment Impact of Newton Through his physics, Newton gave a better understanding of the universe If there were laws to the universe, could there be laws to mankind? John Locke (1632-1704) English philosopher Tried to find the laws of mankind in terms of politics and justice Set the stage for Classical Liberalism John Locke (1632-1704) Two Treaties On Government (1689) Criticizes the concept of Divine Right of Kings Government is a social contract with the people It is designed to protect man’s natural rights (life, liberty, property) If the people do not like what the government is doing, they have a right to overthrow it Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) Every person is born with a tabula rasa (“blank slate”) Our knowledge comes from our environment Evil is not hereditary but something that has to be learned New governments and societies could be created using reason and natural laws Reading from Molière (1728) The Philosophes Philosophes A “free thinker” unhampered by the constraints of religion or dogma in any form Few were actual philosophers and not all of them were French Included everything from professors to political scientists to social reformers Wanted “to study society with the purpose of making his kind better and happier” Salons Hosted by salonnières, aristocratic women Gatherings of elite of society and the philosophes Helped spread ideas outside of academia Helped to educate women Voltaire (1694-1778) Voltaire (1694-1778) Voltaire (1694-1778) Born François Marie Arouet He was a writer, philosopher, and deist Used satire to criticize many of the institutions of the day Targeted the French government and the Catholic Church Wrote during a time period of censorship Early Works Made satirical criticisms of the French aristocracy Served time in the Bastille for libel when he was in his 20s He was temporarily exiled in England in 1724 While he was there, he became a great admirer of all things English (especially Newton and Locke) Voltaire (1694-1778) Philosophical Letters (1734) Written after he returned to France It was also known as Letters on the English Nation Compared a healthy and rational nation (Great Britain) to a very unhealthy one (France) Discussed the religious and political liberties of the British Showed great admiration for English culture and politics and respect for scientists Praised Britain for having more religious toleration than France Candide (1759) Criticized Leibnitzian Optimism (“we live in the best of all possible worlds”) Mocked every institution and aspect of the aristocracy Voltaire (1694-1778) Philosophy Écrasez l’infâme (“crush infamy”) Promoted toleration, civil rights, and free speech Was very anti-clerical Saw infamy as all forms of repression, fanaticism, and bigotry Especially saw this in the Church Calas case Was strongly opposed to religious bigotry Sought to free religion of superstition “The less superstition, the less fanaticism; and the less fanaticism, the less misery Not against religion but rather against narrow dogma Voltaire (1694-1778) He was a big believer in civil liberties Saw inspiration in “enlightened despotism” He once said to a political opponent: “I do not agree with a word you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it” Still viewed monarchy as necessary Voltaire’s works caused him many problems He was forced into temporary exile numerous times His books were banned and burned However, because of his popularity, the French kings had to tolerate him Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) Montesquieu (1689-1755) Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (16891755) Philosophe and political writer Was more cautious and less provocative in his work Born into a noble family Became magistrate in the parlement of Bordeaux Persian Letters (1721) Story of two Persians travelling to Paris Examination of Parisian life through the eyes of foreigners Criticized all aspects of France (e.g., criminal justice system, lack of equality between sexes, etc.) Was able to criticize society and avoid censorship Montesquieu (1689-1755) The Spirit of Laws (1748) Examined different types of governments using an empirical approach Believed there were three different types of governments Republic was either a democracy or rule by an aristocracy (virtue) Monarchy was limited by the law (honor) Despotism does not follow the law and there is fear of the ruler (fear) There was no one perfect type of government that would work everywhere Each country’s system should be based on its traditions and cultures For example, hot climates should have despotism to get people working Montesquieu (1689-1755) Balance of Power Most important section of Spirit focused on separation and balance of power Built upon the structure set up in England Major influence on the writers of the U.S. constitution Criticism of France Realized France was drifting towards despotism Wanted to use either the parlements or the aristocracy to counter-balance the monarchy However, aristocracy was very corrupt during this period Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Encyclopédie, or a systematic dictionary of the sciences, arts, and crafts (1751-1772) A 28 volume set that he edited Its main goal was to change the way people thought "All things must be examined, debated, investigated without exception and without regard for anyone's feelings“ Even though the cost was high, it still had high circulation despite the high price Articles were written by numerous philosophes Attacked religious dogma and superstition Encouraged religious toleration Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Philosophy Christianity was “the most absurd and the most atrocious in its dogma” He liked to comment on the more popular themes at the time Mainly discussed Christianity and government Went from being a deist to an atheist Attacked the monarchy “Man will never be free until the last king is strangled with the entrails of the last priest” “And his hands would plait the priest's entrails, For want of a rope, to strangle kings.” Page from the Encyclopédie It illustrates Truth in the middle shining its light Humanitarianism Humanitarianism Criminals were subject to torture Focused on the dignity and worth of all individuals This had many different aspects including legal reform Including branding, whipping and various forms of mutilation Numerous crimes involved the death penalty There were public executions Trial of Jean Calas (1762) Illustrated the flaws with the criminal justice system Calas was found guilty of murdering his son Argued that Calas, a protestant, wanted to kill his son to prevent him from converting to Catholicism There was no proof of this Humanitarianism Punishment included being tortured twice and then put to death First round of torture was to garner a confession Second round was to find his accomplices Included having his arms and legs slowly pulled apart, having gallons of water poured down his throat, and then “broken on the wheel” in public He then had his head cut off Voltaire took on this case Became his own crusade against anti-Protestant fanaticism Convinced the court in 1765 that Calas was actually innocent Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794) Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794) Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794) On Crimes and Punishments (1764) He was an Italian jurist who focused on humanitarianism and legal reform Attacked the common view that punishment represented society’s vengeance on the criminal Argued that the legitimate rationale for punishment was to maintain social order and prevent other crimes (deterrence) Exposed the public to horrors of torture being used Also illustrated the dehumanizing process of public executions By 1800, a number of countries eliminated torture and limited the death penalty to capital crimes Many believe this was influenced by Beccaria’s work Gotthold Lessing (1729-1781) Religious Toleration Religious Toleration Many philosophes were against religious institutions and dogmas Called for an end to religious warfare and persecution of heretics Most of them considered themselves religious Some who considered themselves agnostics Only a small few considered themselves atheists Attacked Christianity for being too superstitious Deism Common belief amongst the philosophes God was like a “divine clockmaker” Do not believe God intervenes in the everyday life of mankind Religious Toleration Religious toleration was mainly limited to Christianity A number of the philosophes saw Jews and Muslims as being “backwards” and full of superstition and ritual Others called Jews heretics and “Christ killers” Some who believed in toleration of non-Christians as well Gotthold Lessing (1729–1781) Treated Jews sympathetically in his play Nathan the Wise (1779) Stated there was not one true religion Believed the three monotheistic religions were three versions of the same truth Adam Smith (1723-1790) Economic Reforms The philosophes also addressed economic policy The shape of the state was changing A rise in the financial demands of states and their rising empires How could a government make the most of its resources? French physiocrats Saw an inherent natural order that properly governed society Spoke out against mercantilism True wealth came from land and agricultural production They called for a simplified tax system Laissez-faire - Wealth and goods should circulate without government interference Economic Reforms Adam Smith (1723–1790) Pushed the concept of laissez-faire economics was Scottish economist who took in the ideas of the physiocrats Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) Restrictions associated with mercantilism (e.g. high taxes on imported goods) did not create real economic well-being Individuals should chose their own interests without competition from state-chartered monopolies or legal restraints No state regulation of the economy; let business regulate itself Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Radical Enlightenment There were also radical philosophes Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) He did believe in humanitarianism and the creation of a just society Focused on making mankind good Theory of Natural Man Praised the virtues of natural man Natural man does not act morally “Savage man” does not understand complex concepts such as “justice” or “evil” Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Society as a necessary evil Society was necessary for people to develop their moral nature and capacity to reason Society also corrupted by pitting individuals against each other Called for reforms in political society and education The Social Contract (1762) “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. One man thinks himself the master of others, but remains more of a slave than they." In humanity’s natural state, all men are equal Society brings about inequality with its division of labor and private property Man becomes more competitive and yet more dependant on other men Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Popular Sovereignty Was against different branches of government and monarchy He did not believe in representative democracy but rather direct democracy This would transformed a nation Citizens would form a “body politic” People would be willing to give up certain rights out of mutual obligation rather than coercive laws “General Will” The population would be united together by the “general will” Common interests would outweigh individual ones Popular sovereignty will do what is good for the people in general Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) British writer, philosopher, and feminist Many of her ideas were similar to other philosophes of the time She also had been Rousseau’s sharpest critic A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) She illustrated numerous Republican ideas Spoke against inequality and artificial distinctions of rank, birth, or wealth Society ought to seek “the perfection of our nature and capability of happiness” Women had the same innate capacity for reason and selfgovernment as men Virtue the same thing for men and women Relations between the sexes ought to be based on equality Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) Wollstonecraft also spoke about issues with the family Marriage laws were unequal and allowed the husband to be “despotic” over his wife Women have been taught to be dependent and seductive in order to win husbands Education needs to promote liberty and self-reliance She did see a natural division of labor between men and women A woman’s main job was mothering and educating her children Europe (c. 1700) Enlightened Absolutism Secularization of the monarchy Monarchs no longer pressed the issue of divine-right Took up more utilitarian viewpoint: they were there to provide services to the well-being of their state These ideas were strongly supported by the philosophes Enlightened monarchs Rulers who took on enlightened ideas Believed that their power was similar to the absolute monarchs Included hereditary rights and refusing constitutions Believed in improving the lives of their subjects Strengthen a monarch’s authority rather than hurt it Enlightened Absolutism Characteristics of an “enlightened” monarch: Reforms must come from above Allowing religious toleration Promoting freedom of speech and press Avoiding arbitrary rule Obeying laws of the land and enforce them fairly Rulers start the reforms to help the people Each enlightened monarch approached social reforms in different ways but they were all effective Frederick the Great (1740-1786) Frederick the Great (1740-1786) Frederick the Great (1740-1786) Just the opposite of his father, Frederick William I Was more interested in the arts than the military His childhood was not an easy one Endured mental and physical abuse from his father In 1730, he and a few friends attempted to escape to England Frederick William arrested them at the border Frederick and his friend were found guilty of treason and desertion They were to be executed After begging for forgiveness, his father made him watch his friend’s execution Frederick the Great (1740-1786) Forced marriage He was forced to marry Elisabeth Christine of BrunswickBevern She was supposedly very ugly After the wedding ceremony he never saw her again He named his younger brother, Augustus William, as heir to the throne During the Seven Years War he was able to retain control of Silesia With the partition of Poland in 1772, Prussia gained a large amount of territory Included access to the Baltic Sea It was at this point that Frederick took the title King of Prussia Frederick the Great (1740-1786) Enlightened despot He brought about numerous social reforms Corresponded with many of the philosophes of the time His philosophy was that “I am the first servant of the state” He made the law codes less severe He encouraged religious toleration “All religions are equal and good and as long as those practicing are an honest people and wish to populate our land, may they be Turks or Pagans, we will build them mosques and churches.” He set up a system of elementary schools Frederick also promoted the growth of the arts Frederick the Great (1740-1786) He also tried to modernize Prussia He was able to gain the support of the Junkers, the landed nobility This included the development of new industries, including silk factories Gave them jobs in his administration and high ranks in the nobility He died in 1786 supposedly while eating hot eel pie From this point on the Prussian government went into a decline Joseph II (1765-1790) Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790) Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790) Educated through reading the works of Voltaire and other philosophes These ideas strongly appealed to him Was attracted to the policies of Frederick the Great Became co-regent with his mother, Empress Maria Theresa, in 1765 She prevented him from making any reforms because of her conservatism Joseph took sole possession of the throne in 1780 Wanted to enhance the power of the Habsburgs both domestically and in Europe Wanted to Implement major social change to Austria Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790) He planned to follow the path of reason Abolished serfdom in 1787 Nobility disliked this as they were dependent on their labor Peasants did not like the new monetary system Changed the penal code “I have made Philosophy the lawmaker of my empire, her logical applications are going to transform Austria.” He abolished the death penalty in 1787 He established the policy of equality before the law Implemented laissez-faire policies He removed all internal trade barriers Ended domestic monopolies and removed guild restrictions Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790) Reformed the schools Most of the schools in the Empire were run by the Catholic church Opened up state run schools that could be attended by both Protestants and Jews Only a 30% attendance rate but that was very impressive for a time Supporter of religious tolerance Wanted complete religious toleration throughout his empire Patent of Tolerance in 1781 which provided a limited guarantee of freedom of worship Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790) He placed restrictions on the Catholic Church Reducing the size of the clergy and religious orders in the Empire Dissolved over 800 monasteries over the course of his reign Other reforms: Required the use of German as the only political language Allowed for civil marriage and divorce He issued over 6,000 decrees and made 11,000 laws over the course of his reign Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790) Not everybody was happy with the reforms Joseph became ill in 1788 Nobility were unhappy due to the emancipation of the serfs Serfs were unhappy with all the changes taking place Catholic church was unhappy because of all the new restrictions Non-Germans did not like speaking German By the end of his reign, both nobles and peasants were rising up in revolt throughout his Empire His minister refused to grant him an audience Even his brother Leopold, refused to visit him He died in February 1790 His reforms were dismantled by his successors Catherine the Great (1762-1796) Catherine the Great (1762-1796) Catherine the Great (1762-1796) Born Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst Came from a minor German royal family Received a French styled education and was exposed to the works of the philosophes Her mother paved the way for Catherine’s marriage to a high ranking politician The Marriage Catherine married the future Russian tsar, Grand Duke Peter in 745 There were questions of impotence and extreme immaturity Marriage was not consummated for eight years Her mother-in-law told her to take a lover to provide an heir Catherine the Great (1762-1796) Catherine had many lovers through the course of her reign She quickly began to integrate herself into Russian culture She believed the father of her son Paul was Sergei Saltykov, not Peter Wanted the Russian people to see her as being worthy of the crown of Tsarina Learned Russian, converted to Russian Orthodox, and even changed her name to Ekaterina Alexeyevna On January 5, 1762 Empress Elizabeth died Peter took the throne as Peter III Peter III (Jan. 5- July 9, 1762) Catherine the Great (1762-1796) Peter was unpopular with the nobility His foreign policies were of greatest concern Pulled Russia out of the war against Frederick the Great Got Russia involved in a unpopular dispute between Holstein and Demark Catherine became friendly with a group of nobility who strongly disliked Peter Overthrow (July 9, 1792) The Leib Guards (the emperor’s personal guards) revolted Deposed of Peter III and placed Catherine as the new ruler Peter seemed to actually enjoy the news Catherine the Great (1762-1796) The overthrow was conspired by Catherine and her lover at the time, Grigori Orlov Believed that Catherine was fearful that Peter would divorce her Death of Peter On July 17, 1762, Peter was killed while in custody at the imperial estate at Ropsha Alexei Orlov, Grigori’s brother, was involved along with a number of other guards Historians believe that Catherine had nothing to do with the murder itself At the time the official cause of death was listed as “hemorrhoidal colic” but it is now believed to have been poison Catherine the Great (1762-1796) Once on the throne, Catherine was quick to reform Had been corresponding with the likes of Voltaire and Diderot However, she could not lose support of the nobility This was a huge error that many of her contemporaries Legal Reforms Called for the election of an Legislative Commission in 1767 Purpose was to write a new legal code Catherine wrote Instruction as a guide for the deliberations Ideas based on the philosophes Called for all people were to be equal under the law She disapproved of death penalty and torture Questioned serfdom but was not able to give a specific fix to it Commission failed to put anything into practice Catherine the Great (1762-1796) Reorganization of the government Charter of the Nobility (1785) Divided Russia into 50 provinces and numerous districts Officials would be selected by the local nobility Allowed the nobility to become involved in running the government Established the nobility as a separate estate in Russian society Assured them certain privileges Peasants and serfs suffered with these pro-nobility policies From 1762-1769, more than fifty peasant revolts occurred Were unhappy with the increasing protection and responsibilities the nobility were getting Catherine the Great (1762-1796) In 1767, serfs were no longer allowed to petition the state against their masters Pugachev’s Rebellion (1774-1775) Led by a Cossack named Emelyan Pugachev Issued a manifesto in July 1774 which called for the freedom of all peasants from taxes and military service The peasants supported Pugachev Killed more than 1,500 estate owners and their families Pugachev was defeated and executed Catherine the Great (1762-1796) Catherine responded with harsher treatment of peasants Reorganized the government to prevent future revolts She ended all rural reforms Serfdom was expanded into the newer parts of the empire Powers were divided amongst different agencies and more provinces were created Expansion of the Russian empire Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774) gave them a warm water port that had direct access to the Black Sea She also played an integral role in the partitions of Poland Russia received 50% of Polish territory Catherine on her horse Enlightened Absolutism? Three main rulers associated with the Enlightenment Only Joseph II completely braced the ideas of the Enlightenment and attempted massive reforms Frederick and Catherine only put through modest reforms They were driven more by the necessities of the state than the ideas of the philosophes While the reforms were limited, they did make some positive changes Were successful at building a stronger state Amassed large armies to wage wars and gain more power Did reform the legal system reflecting some enlightened ideas Promoted religious toleration to some extent Expanded education Poland before the Partition Treaties Partitions of Poland Poland At this time was the Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania Became a victim because it did not have a strong monarchy Polish king was severely limited in his power He was elected by Polish nobles He had severe restrictions on his power Had little revenue, a small government, and was not allowed to keep a standing army of more than 20,000 Prevented the Polish monarch from becoming absolute At the same time left the country open to attack Partitions of Poland Eyeing Poland Austria, Prussia, and Russia were all interested in the territory held by Poland Poland would come to be used as a negotiating point between the three to prevent warfare Treaty of the Three Black Eagles (1730) Signed by Austria, Prussia, and Russia Written in response to the death of Augustus II of Poland The three countries wanted to make sure that the next Polish king was friendly to their interests Partitions of Poland First Partition of Poland (1772) Organized after Russia became a threat to Austria A reorganization of borders was used to keep the peace Poland became a negotiation point Prussia got most of Poland between Brandenburg and Prussia Austria expanded into southern Poland taking Galicia Russia received parts of Livonia and Belarus With this, Poland lost 30% of its territory, 33% of its population, and 80% of its foreign trade King Stanisław August Poniatowski and the Polish Parliament were forced to approve the treaty First Partition Treaty (1772) Partitions of Poland Constitution of 1791 In May 1792, the big three invaded Poland Issued by Poland on May 3, 1791 Designed to make the Polish king stronger Europe’s first codified national constitution The neighbors of Poland were not happy with this constitution War in Defense of the Constitution (1792) Poland was defeated and the Constitution nullified Second Partition Treaty (1793) This time only Prussia and Russia received territory The total land mass of Poland was reduced even further The population was now only 1/3 of the 1772 population Second Partition Treaty (1793) Partitions of Poland Kościuszko Uprising (March 24-November 16, 1794) Led by Tadeusz Kościuszko Attempted to free Poland and Lithuania from Russian dominance Were successful at first Could not stand up to the Russian army Third Partition Treaty (1795) The remaining territories of Poland were divided up between Russia, Prussia, and Austria This ended the Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania Third Partition of Poland (1795) England in the 18th Century England’s limited monarchy Parliament was controlled by the aristocracy Increasing Parliamentary control at the expense of the king King’s ministers set policy and guided Parliament Parliament would levy taxes, make laws, and indirectly influence the king’s ministers House of Lords had the peers of the realm House of Commons had the landed gentry Both shared similar interests but were plagued by rivalries Monarchs were not powerless They would play upon these rivalries and gain the support of the aristocracy through the granting of titles, jobs, and land
