Download IX. Reform Attempts in the Empire

Reform Attempts and Conflicts of the Empire in the
First Half of the 19th century
After the annexation of Crimea to the
Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire
declared war to its northern neighbour
(1787-1792 Ottoman-Russian War). Austria
joined soon with Russia against the
Ottomans and the Ottoman armies had been
defeated in different fronts.
 However, Austria, anxious about the French
Revolution, sued for peace with the Sublime
Porte and the Treaty of Zistovi was signed in
1791 acknowledging the former border with
a minor gain for Austrians.

After Russian military successes, the
following year, the Ottoman Empire had to
sign the Treaty of Jassy in which it
recognized officially the annexation of
Crimea into the Russian Empire.
 In 1789, the young and reformist Selim III
succeeded Abdulhamid I after the death of
the latter.
 Selim III (1789-1807) founded immediately
a new European style army called Nizam-ı
Cedid (the New Order) in 1793.

The new army proved its efficiency at the
Battle of Akka in 1799 ironically against the
Napoleonic French army which had helped its
foundation. However, during the 1805-1812
Ottoman-Russian War, it could not change
the outcome.
 In 1807, as a result of a large Janissary revolt
in Istanbul, Selim III was dethroned and
killed, and the Nizam-ı Cedid army was
disbanded. The next year, a more fortunate
reformer Sultan Mahmud II was enthroned.

Mahmud II signed the Sened-i Ittifak (the
Bill of Alliance) with the powerful provincial
notables in the same year, delimiting the
power of these latter.
 He also re-founded the former Nizam-ı Cedid
army with a new name, Sekban-ı Cedid in
1808.
 However, with a new revolt janissaries killed
the Grand vizir Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, and
forced the Sultan to disband the Sekban-ı
Cedid in the same year.

The 1805-1812 Ottoman Russian War ended
in 1812 by the Treaty of Bucarest,
acknowledging the annexation of Bessarabia
into the Russian Empire and the autonomy
of Serbia.
 In 1821, a Greek rebellion organized by the
Etnik-i Eterya started in Wallachia where
there was a large Greek minority. This first
uprisal was unsuccessful and immediately
suppressed, however, a second and larger
one commenced in the same year in
Pelloponesia.

Due to the inefficiency of the Janissary corps
and the considerable naval force of the
rebels, the Porte was unable to suppress the
rebllion and asked the assistance of the
powerful governor of Egypt, Kavalalı
Mehmed Ali Pasha, with a promise of the
governorships of Crete and Peloponnesia.
 In 1826, Mahmud II, with the help of the
people of Istanbul, annihilated the Janissary
corps (Vaka-yı Hayriye) and founded another
European style new army called this time
Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye in order to
please the conservative and religious circles.


With a large fleet and a European style
expeditionary corps led by Ibrahim Pasha of
Egypt, son of Mehmed Ali, the rebellion was
pacified, but with the surprise attack of the
Russian-British-French naval forces to the
joint Ottoman-Egyptian fleets at Navarino in
1827, the Ottoman-Egyptian forces suffered
heavy losses and lost the naval mastery in
the Aegean.
Attention
Metternich’s conservative and monarchist
Europe was now overtly supporting a
revolutionary movement!
Following this undeclared action of hostility, the
Porte declared war to Russia in 1828, starting
the 1828-1829 Ottoman-Russian War.
 Ottomans, with a newly established army and
without navy were defeated soundly in the
Balkanic and Caucasian fronts and the Russian
armies reached Edirne and Erzurum.

Mahmud II sued for peace with Russia. By
the Treaty of Edirne of 1829, the Sublime
Porte had to recognize the independence of
the newly established Greek kingdom, gave
autonomy to Wallachia and Moldova and
accepted to pay a war indemnity to Russia.
 The following year France occupied Algeria
and Mehmed Ali Pasha of Egypt refused to
help Istanbul against Russia and demanded
the governorship of Syria as a compensation
of the loss of promised Peloponnesia and his
fleet. Mahmud II refused these demands.


Mehmed Ali sent a large and modern army
against Syria under the command of his son
Ibrahim
Pasha.
The
latter
invaded
successfully the whole Syria and entered
Anatolia, defeating two Ottoman armies
consecutively in Adana and Konya.
Attention
There was no Ottoman force left in Anatolia
to protect the imperial capital!
Mahmud II asked the assistance of Britain
and France against Kavalalı’s army which
had already reached Kütahya, they refused.
The Sultan repeated the same demand to
the Tsar, who accepted and sent a Russian
fleet to Istanbul to prevent its capture by the
Egyptian army.
 Mahmud II and Mehmed Ali Pasha signed in
1833 the Treaty of Kütahya, by which the
governorships of Egypt and Crete were
officialy left to Mehmed Ali and of Jeddah to
Ibrahim Pashas. Additionally the right of
levying taxes in the province of Adana was
also given to Ibrahim Pasha.

In 1833, The Porte also signed a treaty of
alliance with Russia at Hünkar Iskelesi, in
Istanbul, which was to be valid for 8 years and
according to which Russia would sent its fleet
and land forces to the help of the Ottomans in
case of an agression against the latter and the
Porte would close the Straits in case of an
agression against Russia.
 In 1839, Britain encouraged Mahmud II to
wage war against the French-backed Egypt.
The newly established Ottoman army was once
again defeated by the forces of Ibrahim Pasha
at the Battle of Nizip in the same year.

Attention
The Treaty of Hünkar Iskelesi would be valid
under such circumstances.
Meanwhile, Mahmud II passed away and his
son Abdulmedjid succeeded him.
 The Ottoman fleet left Istanbul and fled to
Egypt.
 The situation was catastrophic and Britain
and France, anxious about a Russian control
over Istanbul and Straits, intervened.


On the 3rd of November, 1839, with the
advise of Mustafa Reshid Pasha, the
Ottoman foreign minister, the “Tanzimat
(Reorganization)” Rescript was proclaimed in
Gülhane, İstanbul, acknowledging the
equality of all Ottoman subjects, from all
races and creeds.