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Mr. Cargile Mission Hills HS, San Marcos CA * 1. In 1789, Napoleon invaded Egypt & defeated the Mamluk forces he encountered there. 15 months later, after a series of defeats, Napoleon returned to Fr., seized power, & made himself emperor. *2. His generals had little hope of holding on to power &, in 1801, agreed to w/draw. *Muhammad Ali emerged as the victor in the ensuing power struggle. * 3. Muhammad Ali emerged as the victor in the ensuing power struggle. * 4. He est. schools to train modern military officers & built factories to supply his new army. *5. In 1830, his son Ibrahim invaded Syria & started a similar set of reforms there. * 6. European military pressure forced Muhammad Ali to w/draw in 1841 to the present day borders of Egypt and Israel. * 7. Muhammad Ali remained Egypt’s ruler until 1849 & his family held onto power until 1952. * 1. @ the end of the 18th c. Sultan Selim III introduced reforms to strengthen the military & the central gov’t. & to standardize taxation & land tenure. *These reforms aroused the opposition of Janissaries, noblemen, and the ulama. *2. Tensions btw the Sultanate & the Janissaries sparked a Janissary revolt in Serbia in 1805. *Serbian peasants helped to defeat the Janissary uprising & went on to make Serbia Independent of the Ottoman Empire. * 3. Selim suspended his reform program in 1806, too late to prevent massive military uprising in Istanbul in which Selim was captured. * 4. The Greeks gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1829 [1821]. *Br., Fr., and Russia assisted the Greeks in their struggle for independence & regarded the Greek victory as a triumph of European civilization. *5. Sultan Mahmud II believed that the loss of Greece indicated a profound weakness in Ottoman military & financial organization Mahmud used popular outrage over the loss of Greece to justify a series of reforms that included: *the creation of a new army corps, elimination of the Janissaries, *& reduction of the political power of the Tanzimat (restructuring) reforms initiated by his successor Abdul Mejid in 1839. *6. Military cadets were sent to Fr. & Ger. For training. *Foreign instructors were employed *French was the preferred language *Foreign subjects were taught *7. Educational reform stimulated growth of the wealth & influence of urban elites. *The reforms also brought about unexpected cultural & social effects that ranged from the into. Of European clothing styles to equal access to the courts for all male subjects to equalization of taxation. *The reforms decreased the influence of women, whilt @ the same time the development of a cash economy & competitive labor market drove women from the work force. * 1. Russia’s southward expansion @ the expense of the Ottoman Emp. Led to the Crimean War. *An Alliance of Britain, France and the Ottoman Emp. defeated Russia and thus blocked Russian expansion into E. Europe & M.E. * 2. The Crimean War brought significant changes to all combatants. The Russian gov,t. was further discredited & forced into making reforms. *Br. & Fr. Carried out extensive propaganda campaigns that emphasized their roles in the war, & Fr. Press promoted a sense of unity btw Turkish & Fr. society. Propaganda campaigns “Charge of the Light Brigade” *3. The Crimean War marked the transition from traditional to modern warfare. *The percussion caps & breech-loading rifles that were used in the C.W. were the beginning of a series of subsequent changes in military technology that included the invention of machine guns, the use of railways to transfer weapons & men, & trench warfare. An animation showing the loading cycle for a large naval breech-loader. Notice that there is a series of interlocking doors that never permit an open path from the gunhouse, down which a flash might travel, to the magazine. * 4. After the C.W. the O. E. cont’d. to est. secular financial & commercial institutions on the European model. * These reforms contributed to a shift of population from rural to urban areas & the development of professional & wage laborer classes, but they did not solve the regime’s fiscal problems. *5. Problems associated w/ the reforms include * the Ottoman state’s dependence on foreign loans, *a trade deficit, *& inflation. *1860s & 1870s – discussion of a law that would have permitted all me to vote left Muslims worried that the O.E. was no longer a Muslim society. This worry may have contributed to Muslim hostilities against Christians in the Ottoman territories in Europe, Armenia, & the Middle East. *6. The decline of the Ottoman power& wealth inspired a group of educated urban men known as the Young Ottomans to band together to work for constitutionalism, liberal reform, & the creation of a Turkish national state in place of the O.E. *In 1876, a constitution was granted, but a coup soon placed a more conservative ruler on the throne; the O.E. thus continued its weakened existence under the sponsorship of the Western powers until 1922. *1. In 1700, only 3% of the Russian pop. Lived in cities & Russia was slow to acquire a modern forms of transportation. *2. While Russia aspired to Western-style economic development, fear of political change prevented real progress. *3. Nonetheless, Russia has more in common w/ the other European nations than did the Ottoman Empire. *4. Slavophiles & Westernizes debated the proper course for Russian development. *5. The diplomatic inclusion of Russia among the great powers of Europe was counterbalanced by a powerful sense of Russophobia in the west. *1. By the end of the 18th c., the Russian Empire had reached the Pacific O. & the borders of China. *In the 19th c., Russian expansion continued to the south, bringing Russia into conflict w/ China, Japan, Iran, & the Ottoman Empire. *2. Britain took steps to halt Russian expansion before Russia gained control of all of Central Asia. *1. Russia had had cultural contact w. Europe since the late 17th c. *2. The reforms of Alexander I promised more on paper than they delivered in practice. *3. Opposition to reform came from wealthy families that feared reform would bring about imperial despotism, a fear that was realized during the reign of Nicholas I. *4. The Decembrest revolt was carried out by a group of reform-minded military officers upon the death of Alexander I. Their defeat amounted to the defeat of reform for the next 3 decades. Painting by Mihály Zichy of the coronation of Tsar Alexander II and the Empress Maria Alexandrovna, which took place on 26 August/7 September 1856 at the Dormition Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The painting depicts the moment of the coronation in which the Tsar crowns his Empress *5. Heavy penalties were imposed on Russia in the treaty that ended the Crimean War. The new tsar, Alexander II, was called upon to institute major reforms. *6. Under Alexander II, reforms & cultural trends begun under his grandfather were encouraged & expanded. *7. The 19th c. saw numerous Russian scholarly & scientific achievements, as well as the emergence of significant Russian writers & thinkers. OVERVIEW * 1. When the Qing conquered China in the 1600s they restored peach and stability and promoted the recovery and expansion of the agricultural economy. *Results: *Doubling of the Chinese population btw 1650-1800. *Population increase = environmental damage *Increasing # of itinerant farmhands, laborers, and merchants. This photograph taken in the 1860s by an Englishman shows a comparatively wide market street with signs advertising drugs, cushions, seals, ink, etc. The engraving of a Cairo street scene shows a much more exotic stereotype of the orient, complete with young girl displaying her body while covering her face. Street Scene in Guangzhou * 2. There were a # of sources of discontent in Qing China. *Minority peoples driven off of land *Many regarded the gov’t. as being weak, corrupt, & in collusion w/ foreign merchants and missionaries in Canton & Macao. *Discontent was manifest in a series of internal rebellions in the 19th century *White Lotus rebellion (1794-1804) Rattan Factory in Guangzhou *This photo, taken around 1875, shows Chinese men and women workers, mostly of peasant background, in a factory making rattan, along with the factory’s European owners. Trade with Europe was carefully regulated by the Chinese imperialharbor government, Western warehouses, Canton the Manchu Dynasty. It required all foreign merchants to live in the southern city of Canton and to buy and sell only to the local merchant monopoly. For years the community of foreign merchants in Canton had to accept the Chinese system. Here we see Western warehouses and offices, with their respective flags flying, in Canton Harbor in the 19th century. * 1. Believing the Europeans to be a remote & relatively unimportant people, the Qing did not @ first pay much attention to trade issues or to the growth in the opium trade. *In 1939, the Qing gov’t. recognizing the harm of the opium trade banned the use and import of opium. *Lin Zexu was sent to Canton to deal w/ the matter. *2. The ban of opium led to the Opium War (1839-1842). *Results: *Better trained British forces defeated the Qing *Forced them to sign the Treaty of Nanking *This treaty and subsequent others gave various Western powers special privileges & resulted in the colonization of small pockets of Qing territory. *1. The Taiping Rebellion broke out in Guangxi province, where poor farmland, endemic poverty, & economic distress were complicated by ethnic divisions that relegated the minority Hakka people to the lowliest trades. *2. Hong Xiuquan *Founder of the Taiping movement *A man of Hakka background *Familiar with the teachings of Christian missionaries in Canton *Declared himself the younger brother of Jesus *Founded religious group (the “Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace” or “Taiping” movement) to which he recruited followers from among the Hakka people. Nanjing encircled (Qing), 1864 The Taiping movement arose to drive the Manchu conquerors, the Qing, out of China. For a decade the Taipings held the city of Nanjing as their capital. For years Qing and international troops attempted to break the Taiping hold and by summer of 1864, had built tunnels leading to the foundations of Nanjing's walls and had planted explosives. The detonation signaled the final Qing assault. As shown here, the people of the city, along with their starving livestock, were caught in the crossfire. Many of the Taiping leaders escaped but nearly all were hunted down and executed. *3. The Taiping forces defeated imperial troops in Guangxi, *recruited (or forced) villagers into their segregated male & female battalions & work teams, *and moved toward eastern & northern China. *In 1853 Taiping forces captured Nanjing & made it the capital of their “Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace.” *4. The Qing were finally able to defeat the Taiping with help from military forces organized by provincial governors like Zeng Guofan and with the assistance of British and French forces. *5. The Taiping Rebellion was one of the bloodiest civil wars and the greatest armed conflicts before the 20th century. *Results: *20 to 30 million deaths *Depopulation *Destruction of rich agricultural lands in central & E. China *Suffering & destruction in the cities & cultural centers of eastern China. Conflicts in the Qing Empire, 1839-1870 In both the Opium War of 1839-1842 and the Arrow War of 1856-1860, the sea coasts saw most of the action. Since the Qing had no imperial navy, the well-armed British ships encountered little resistance as they shelled the southern coasts. In inland conflicts, such as the Taiping Rebellion, the opposing armies were massive and slow moving. Battles on land were often prolonged attempts by one side to starve out the other side before making a major assault. *1. After the 1850s the expense of wars and the burden of indemnities payable to Western gov’ts. Made it impossible for the Qing to get out of debt. *W/ the Qing gov’t. in their debt, Britain & France became active participants in the period of recovery known as the Tongzhi Restoration that followed the Taiping Rebellion. Maxim gun *2. The real recovery was managed by provincial governors (i.e. Zeng Guofan). *They looked to the U.S. as a model *Worked to restore agriculture and to reform the military & industrialize armaments manufacture. These two representatives of the Qing Empire visited northern England after the great Chinese civil war, called the Taiping Rebellion, to examine and, if possible, purchase new weapons. They posed for a photograph after the famous Maxim gun shot a tree in half. Maxim gun These two representatives of the Qing Empire visited northern England after the great Chinese civil war, called the Taiping Rebellion, to examine and, if possible, purchase new weapons. They posed for a photograph after the famous Maxim gun shot a tree in half. *The reform programs were supported by a coalition of Qing aristocrats including Empress Dowager Cixi, but they were unable to prevent the Qing Empire from disintegrating in to a set of large power zones in which provincial governors exercised real authority. Empress Dowager, 1862-1908 In the 1860s and 1870s, Cixi was a supporter of reform. After the 1880s, known as the "Empress Dowager," she was widely regarded as corrupt and self-centered, and as an obstacle to reform. Her greatest allies were the court eunuchs. Introduced to palace life in early China as managers of the imperial harem, eunuchs became powerful political parties at court. The first Qin emperors refused to allow the eunuchs any political influence, but by Cixi's time the eunuchs were once again a political force. This interactive map shows the increased holdings and rising influence of colonial powers against the backdrop of China's waning Qing Empire.