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Chapter 27
Discussion and Review
Compare the situations of the Ottoman and Qing Empires in the
nineteenth century and their responses to the European
challenge.
The Ottoman empire
It was geographically close to Europe and fairly early began reforms
designed to maintain an equilibrium with Europe.
Those reforms included financial and military modernization, standardizing
taxation, control the provincial governors and eliminating the influence of
religious elites from much of the state and the economy.
Janissaries were the most persistent opponent
 Qing
Distant from Europe, both geographically and ideologically, the Qing Empire
began reform efforts so late that even the central territories could not unite
against European pressure.
The Russian state, which bordered both empires, was important in the fate
of each.
Being on the eastern border of Russia, the Qing failed to see a connection
between Russian expansion and European seaborne expansion to the
southeast, and were consequently less prepared for the European
challenge.
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The Janissary revolt in Serbia taught Ottoman leaders that
reform had to be more systematic. The Ottoman response
was the Tanzimat Reforms. Describe those reforms, and
evaluate their effectiveness.
The Tanzimat (restructuring) Reforms
guaranteed political rights that were similar in some ways to those in the
Magna Carta but restricted to men and the public sphere.
The guarantees covered the right to public trials, equal protection under the
law for all religious persuasions, equal eligibility of men for military service,
education reform (preferred French text), and new tax collection methods,
which eliminated the outdated tax farming system.
 Effects of the reform on women
Decreased their status; seclusion of women symbolized Turkish nativism
and Muslim tradition
Overall effect
Extraterritoriality was a practice of the Europeans which allowed them to live
under their own laws within Ottoman cities; also enjoyed tax breaks on
imports and establish banks
The Ottoman Empire thus became a leader in secular reforms within the
Islamic world and developed a system that most nearly resembled a
constitution. The reforms helped modernize the empire.
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What were the causes of the Crimean War (1853-1856)?
Russia
 Russia had been geographically pressuring the
Ottoman Empire for several decades before the
Crimean War and exploited the weakness of the
Ottoman empire.
 In 1805, It had undermined Ottoman control in
Serbia by threatening to intervene
 Russia also seemed poised to continue seizing
Ottoman lands in the Balkans and Central Asia.
 The tsars demanded recognition as the spiritual
and political leaders of Orthodox Christians living
in Ottoman territories.
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Ottoman Empire
Backed by promises of support from Britain and
France, the Ottomans refused Russian demands
and attempted to drive them from the region of
present-day Romania.
Britain and France joined the Ottomans in an
invasion of the Russian territory of Crimea.
 Significance of the Crimean War
Marked the transition to modern warfare (trench
warfare, machine guns, grenades, etc.)
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Discuss the factors within China and among the Chinese people
that explain the powerful British presence in China by 1842.
Causes for discontent
By the early nineteenth century, Qing society had
become overburdened by enormous population
growth, resulting in a failing agricultural base, a
restless and urbanizing population, and a generally
failing economy.
 Britain
The Qing, did not consider the British a serious threat.
To the Qing, the British were geographically distant
and uninterested in trade.
However the British were much more than mildly
interested, especially in luxury items such as tea and
silks.
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Opium trade and war 1839-1842
The only item that the British could find to exchange was
opium.
Although opium imports had long been banned by the
Qing government, the ban was seldom enforced.
By 1839, opium imports and drug-related problems
increased enormously, and the Qing decided to begin
enforcing the ban.
The British considered enforcement a restraint on trade
and an assault on British economic well-being.
Therefore, they sent their naval and marine forces (gun
boats) to China, to attack Chinese coastal cities;
Chinese forces, Bannermen, who fought with traditional
weapons were no match
The Treaty of Nanking solidified British power by
granting the British rights of residence in Chinese “treaty
ports,” a low tariff on British imports, and Hong Kong
became a British colony.
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What was the most obvious demonstration of the Chinese
people’s dissatisfaction at midcentury? Explain the causes
and results of that Nineteenth-century Qing China unrest.
 The Taiping Rebellion 1850-1864
Beginning in the Guangxi region, the rebellion was sparked by
an unstable agricultural base and a population that increasingly
relied on odious labor, such as carrying human waste.
Influenced by Protestant Christianity, the Hakka (a minority
group) led by Hong Xiuquan, a failed candidate in the
examination system, saw himself as a younger brother of
Jesus, destined to drive the Qing from China.
Hong gathered different ethnic and economic groups to fight
against the Qing.
The movement was unique in its use of women in warrior
brigades.
Other villages feared the rebellion’s mix of warrior women,
totalitarian rule, and bizarre foreign ideology.
Taiping armies controlled the countryside and captured the city
of Nanjing, where they barricaded themselves against imperial
forces during a ten-year siege.
European Reactions to the Taiping rebellion
The Qing government was now heavily indebted to
Britain and France, and these European powers
feared that the Taipings might succeed in the war to
overthrow the Qing empire.
At first they hesitated to attack the Taipings, because
they understood the Taipings to be Christians.
However, they soon concluded that the Taipings were
not true Christians.
When the Crimean War was ended in 1856, Britain
and France were free to turn their attention to China.
They briefly attacked Qing port cities as punishment
for Qing reluctance to fulfill the obligations of previous
treaties, then threw themselves into the war against
the Taipings, on the side of the Qing. By 1864 the
Taiping Rebellion was suppressed.
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How did Japan’s reaction to the Euro-American presence differ
from the responses of other Eurasian nations?
Tokagawa Japan
Like other Eurasian nations, the Tokugawa shogunate was well established
but suffered from a declining economy and agricultural base and from
governmental corruption.
Japan closed its borders to foreigners and prohibited the Japanese travel
abroad because of its inability to resist invasions
Like other nations, Japan also faced the shock of military and economic
encounters with Europeans and Americans.
 Effects of Decentralization
What made the Japanese reaction unique was the decentralized nature of
the Tokugawa government, which prevented Japan from instituting reforms
at the top.
 Meiji Restoration
Contact with the West ultimately led to the disintegration of the Japanese
political system and the Meiji Restoration.
Meiji Japan featured a revolutionary centralized and efficient national
government and restored political power to the emperor.
It instituted reforms in education and promoted military and industrial
expansion that would enable the Japanese to compete with Europeans and
Americans in a very short span of time.
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What were the immediate and the long-term results of the
Tokugawa shogunate’s response to the threat of EuroAmerican invasions?
Problems in the Tokugawa
Like the Qing and Ottoman Empires, Tokugawa Japan tried to
strengthen its finances and military.
However, because of the decentralized nature of Tokugawa
government and the growing power of regional leaders estranged
from Tokugawa favor and control, the Tokugawa government
crumbled.
 Transformation of Japan
When the shogunate agreed to sign an unequal treaty with the
United States in 1858, many regional governors became opposed to
the Tokugawa and began to plan the overthrow of the shogunate.
Under the leadership of the domains of Choshu and Satsuma, the
rebel governors overthrew Tokugawa government, “restored”
Emperor Mutsuhito, and created a strong central government, which
completed the political, economic, and industrial transformation of
Japan. Within decades, Japan became a world naval power.
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