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SO 101 World History
The French Revolution
And
The Age of Napoleon
Rise of French Absolutism
The Bourbon Dynasty
 As a result of the Hundred Year’s War, France developed a
powerful monarchy by the end of the Middle Ages.
 Religious wars between Catholics and Huguenots
(Calvinists) divided France in the 16th century.
 In 1589, a Huguenot noble, Henri Duke of Navarre,
was able to claim the throne and to end the violence
converted to Catholicism while proclaiming toleration of the
Huguenots (Edict of Nantes),France became the first
nation to allow two forms of Christianity to coexist.
 As King Henri IV, he established the Bourbon Dynasty
which would rule France down to the Revolution of 1787.
Henry IV
All Paris is worth A Mass.
Bourbon Dynasty
 Henri IV worked to restore the prosperity of France and the
power of the monarchy. Despite this, in 1610 he was
assassinated by a Dominican monk who believed that his
conversion had been a pretense.
 Henri had a young son, Louis XIII, who was totally unprepared
to rule, but the son had an advisor, the Duke Cardinal
Richelieu, who ran the kingdom from 1624 until 1642 and who
succeeded in making the King the most powerful man in France
and France the most powerful nation in Europe.
 To do so, he would reduce the power of the French nobility and
support Protestant princes waging war against the Hapsburg Holy
Roman Emperor.
Cardinal Richelieu
Louis XIII
Bourbon Dynasty
 Louis XIII, held by some to be the most stupid man ever to
be king, survived Richelieu by one year. In 1643 the throne
passed to his infant son Louis XIV. He would become
France’s greatest monarch and the most absolute of absolute
monarchs.
 Louis took advantage of the work of Richelieu and, after
1661, ruled without a chief advisor until his death in 1715.
 Whatever Louis wanted, Louis got. “L’ etat c’est moi.” he
famously proclaimed, “I am the state.”
Louis XIV
The Sun King
Louis XIV
 Louis reduced the power of the old nobility, the nobles of
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the sword.
He created a new group of bureaucrats, the nobles of the robe,
who owed their positions and titles to him.
He divided France into administrative units which had no relation
to the former feudal boundaries.
He increased taxes and made their collections more efficient.
He pursued a policy of mercantilism, which sought to increase
wealth by expanding production, reducing imports and
establishing overseas colonies, especially in Canada.
The more wealth France had, the less wealth other countries
would have.
Louis XIV
The Sun King
 He constructed a huge palace at Versailles, a day’s journey from
Paris. He spent much of his time there, forcing the nobles to play
the parts of servants while they squandered their fortunes to pay
for the costs of serving in the court. The Gilded Cage of Versailles
 In 1685, he revoked the Edict of Nantes and forced all
Huguenots to either convert to Catholicism or leave France, most
of them left and with them a good portion of France’s commercial
and manufacturing leadership.
 He led France into 4 major wars, to expand its boundaries and its
power in Europe. He created the largest Army in the Western
World. He also drove virtually every other nation in Europe into
alliances aimed against France. England emerged as his greatest
rival.
Louis XIV and Louis XV
 Every European Court imitated his fashion and styles, while
opposing his power.
 He increased France’s debt beyond its ability to pay it off through
taxes and began to borrow to cover the deficit.
 Louis XIV outlived his son and grandson, he died in 1715, after a
reign of 72 years, the longest of any monarch, and was succeeded
by his great- grandson, Louis XV.
 Louis XV continued to spend money lavishly. His armies
continued to fight wars in Europe and North America. Ultimately
fighting and losing the 7 Year’s War. France’s debt continued to
grow. He outlived his son and was succeeded, in 1774, by his
grandson, Louis XVI.
Louis XV, Louis XVI and Friends
The Ancien Regime
The Monarch
 The social order of France, and to a great degree the rest
Europe, had remained largely unchanged from the beginning
of the modern era to the 18th century.
 The Monarch, whose power was absolute, ruled by
divine right. He answered only to God, and then only
after his death. He was surrounded by the members of the
extended royal family and served by both nobles and lowborn servants.
 Royals were above every class in the country, they were
related to royal families in other countries.
 It was good to be the king!
Ancien Regime
First Estate
 In France, and in other Catholic Countries, The highest level of
society, below the royal family, was made up of members of the
Roman Catholic Clergy. In France they were called the First
Estate.
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Less than 1% of the total population
Included Cardinals, Bishops, Abbots, Priests and Religious
Controlled about 1/3 of the wealth of France
Provided virtually all social as well as religious services
Open to individuals of all social groups
Paid no taxes—no one can tax God, or his servants.
Collected the Tithe—tenth—from members of the church
Upheld the traditional systems of society and opposed secular beliefs
of the Enlightenment.
Ancien Regime
Second Estate
 The Nobility made up the Second Estate. Because they
represented worldly power, they ranked below the Clergy who
represented divine authority.
About 2% of the population
They controlled about 1/3 of the nation’s wealth
They paid no taxes
They collected dues, rents, fees and corvee labor from the
commoners who lived and worked on their estates
 Nobles of the Sword dated to the Medieval Era and felt that they
should have a greater share of power
 Nobles of the Robe were given titles by the King and served in the
government. They sometimes argued for major reforms
 All Nobles believed that Noble rights should be retained.
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Third Estate
Commoners
The remaining 98% of the population, were assigned to the
Third Estate.
 The poorest peasant and the richest merchant were
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regarded as Commoners and so belonged to the 3rd Estate
Farmers, workers in shops and factories, doctors, lawyers, merchants
and bankers; extremely rich and very poor are all regarded as equal to
each other and inferior to the other estates
They paid all of the taxes collected by the Monarchy
They generate most of the wealth of the state by their labor and
enterprise
They filled the ranks of the Army
They had no voice in the government of France
They included an emerging middle class who supported the
Enlightenment
The three Estates
of France
1788
Calling of the Estates General
 By 1788, the economic problems of France reinforced by
nearly a decade of agricultural disasters reached the breaking
point.
 Jacques Neckar, Minister of Finance, proposed to the king
that only by extending taxes to the 1st and 2nd Estates could
the economy of France be saved from total collapse.
 To bring this about, Neckar advised that the King summon
into session the Estates General, an advisory body of
representative of all 3 estates which had last convened in the
early reign of Louis XIV.
 The King would inform them of the crisis and request that
they approve taxes on the two exempt estates.
Calling of the Estates General
 Each estate would elect its own members, with the first two
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estates having far more representatives than the 3rd Estate.
Each estate would meet separately and vote separately.
It was expected that all three would approve his request.
To “sweeten” the deal, the king requested that each estate
prepare a “Cahier” or petition of grievances to present to him
for his possible consideration.
The Estates would convene at Versailles in April of 1789.
Marie Antoinette voiced her opposition to the entire scheme
but was ignored.
Calling of the Estates General
 The 1st and 2nd Estate were not thrilled by the prospect of
new taxes on them, but did feel that the meeting might
provide them with an opportunity to increase their power
and protect their wealth.
 The 3rd Estate was most excited with the prospect of both tax
relief and being heard.
 Abbe Sieyes, a parish priest and member of the 3rd Estate
wrote a pamphlet, “What is the 3rd Estate?” Which
captured the imagination of many members of the middle
class in that it promised that they might someday guide the
future of the country.
May 1789
Meeting of the Estates General
 Representatives of the 3 Estates gathered at Versailles.
 For many of the 3rd Estate it was their first time inside the
palace.
 The King welcomed them in his “Address from the Throne.”
 He commanded them to meet in separate sessions, but the
3rd Estate promptly demanded that all 3 Estates continue to
meet collectively. When both the king and the members of
the other estates refused this request, the 3rd Estate refused
to vote on any other measure, including the taxation of the
1st and 2nd estates. The entire process had broken down.
Tennis Court Oath
The National Assembly
 After several weeks of stalemate, the Queen prevailed on the
King to dismiss the Estates General.
 On May 22, by Royal Decree, the Estates were pirogued or
dismissed, as was the King’s right. To ensure obedience, he
ordered guards stationed at the entrances to the chambers
being used by each estate to meet.
 On May 23, when the 3rd Estate was turned away from their
hall, they moved to the Tennis Court and swore an Oath to
remain in session until a Constitution was adopted. They
renamed themselves the National Assembly and invited
members of the other Estates to join them. A few did so
although most packed up and left. The King did nothing.
July 14, 1789
Bastille Day
 The Queen convinced the King that Swiss mercenaries
should be brought into France, in the event that the Assembly
got out of hand.
 They were quartered on the Champ de Mars, where the
Eiffel Tower now stands.
 Their presence worried the underemployed masses of Paris,
the Sans-Cullottes ( Men without Pants) who believed the
Swiss might be used against them.
 They in turn decided to arm themselves by capturing the
weapons stored in the Bastille, a medieval fortress now used
as an armory and lunatic asylum.
Bastille Day
 The Sans-Culottes acted spontaneously and marched on the
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Bastille. When the commander refused to surrender the
arsenal to them, they managed to break in and in the process
butchered the small garrison.
They seized the weapons and freed the lunatics.
July 14, 1789 would become day 1 of year 1 of the
revolutionary calendar.
It is still celebrated as France’s most important national
holiday.
At Versailles, neither the King nor the National Assembly had
any idea of what had happened.
The Great Fear and
The National Guard
 As knowledge of the Bastille attack spread, a number of
consequences did develop.
 In the Countryside, the peasants began to attack the country
houses of the nobles to procure weapons for themselves as
the sans-Culottes had done in the city. At the same time they
burned tax and rent records held by the nobles. They did not
attack the nobles themselves. Many nobles fled the country
as Emigres.
 In Paris, the Middle Class decided to arm itself to protect
itself from the armed Sans-Culottes. They formed the
National Guard and chose the Marquis de Lafayette to
command it.
Law Of August 4 &
Declaration of the Rights of Man
 The National Assembly pressed forward with several
revolutionary proposals.
 On August 4, they announced that the feudal privileges
of the 2nd Estate were abolished. Feudalism was dead,
dues and fees were eliminated, Nobles were no longer
superior to commoners before the law. They did this on their
own authority and did not consult the king before or after
the fact.
 On August 27, they proclaimed the Declaration of the
Rights of Man which held that all men were equal, had
equal rights and were all subject to one law. Liberty,
Equality, Fraternity.
Constitutional Monarchy
1789-1791
 The National Assembly continued to define the nature of the
new government of France.
 The executive power of the monarch would be defined and
limited by the terms of the Constitution
 Legislative power and control of taxation would reside in the
Legislative branch and the king could not veto their laws
 The Judiciary would be independent of both King and
Legislature
 The rights of the citizens to free speech, assembly, worship and
to vote for the legislature would be guaranteed.
 The 1st Constitution was completed in the Spring of 1791.
Women’s March on Versailles
October 5, 1789
 Long before the Constitution was completed or accepted by
the King, the women of Paris forced the King to submit to
the will of the people.
 Bread shortages led a group of poor women and some of the
armed Sans-Culottes to take the day’s journey to Versailles to
demand that the King find bread for the poor.
 When royal troops tried to stop them from entering the
palace, the mob opened fire and killed two of the guards.
 Members of the National Guard arrived and defused the
situation, Lafayette himself convinced the King to return to
Paris. He would never visit Versailles again.
The King Embraces The Revolution
(Or does he?)
 Lafayette and the National Guard protected the King, the
Queen and the Dauphin on their return to Paris.
 Lafayette convinced the King to present himself to the people
at the Hotel de Ville. Lafayette and the King embraced and
the King put on the Red, White and Blue ribbon of the
revolution which was derived from the colors of the
American Revolution.
 The King was symbolically accepting what had been done and
what would be done to transform France. It appeared as if
the revolution had been a success.
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
1791
 Even as the issue of Constitutional Monarchy seemed to be
resolving itself, a new crisis developed when the radical wing
of the Assembly voted in a law controlling the Catholic
Church.
 All clergy are required to swear an oath to the state and act as
civil servants.
 All Church property becomes state property.
 Refusal to accept is regarded as criminal action.
 The Pope announces that to accept the law is grounds for
excommunication.
 France and the Church enter into a prolonged struggle.
 The peasants especially are opposed to this law.
Flight to Varrenes
June, 1791
 The Queen convinces the King that the Royal family should
flee France and seek shelter with her Brother Leopold the
Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of Austria. He will help
them regain complete control of France.
 The family slips out of Paris in the middle of the night
disguised as members of the middle class. They travel as far
as Varrenes near the border with Belgium where they are
recognized, detained and returned to Paris under guard.
 The King is now suspected of treason against his country and
the revolution.
Fall of the Monarchy
1791-1792
 The Royal family was confined to the Tuileries, another of the
palaces in Paris.
 The left wing of the National Assembly began demanding that
the King be removed from power, the Monarchy abolished
and a Republic proclaimed. The Sans-Culottes supported this
and mass protests formed. The National Guard opened fire
on one such demonstration and Lafayette’s popularity
vanished.
 Austria and Prussia issued a joint declaration at Pillnitz,
demanding that the royal family be released and threatening
an invasion if this did not happen. The Assembly in turn
threatened war with both countries if they did not back
down.
Fall of the Monarchy
1792
 In April1792, France declared War on the Austro-Prussian
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alliance.
French Armies invaded the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium)
and were promptly defeated.
The radicals now pressed for the abolition of the Monarchy
and the imprisonment of the King.
On August 10, a mob stormed the Tuileries, massacred the
troops still loyal to the King and seized the royal family.
The Assembly pronounced the dissolution of the Monarchy
and imprisonment of the Bourbon family in the Temple, the
former headquarters of the Knights Templar.
Rise of the Republic
1792-1793
 The Assembly next proclaimed the 1st Constitution invalid
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and called for the election a new government based on
republican principals.
As German armies marched on Paris, mobs attacked and
murdered hundreds of nobles and clergy in the September
Massacres.
The King was put on trial, charged with Treason against
France and having shed the blood of his own subjects.
On January 21, 1793 the King was beheaded on the
guillotine. In October, the Queen was executed as well.
The Dauphin, vanished.
The Reign of Terror
1793-1794
 The death of the King led other countries including Spain,
the Netherlands and Great Britain to declare war on France.
 The Jacobins, now in control, declared a state of national
emergency and ordered the Levee en Masse, the total
mobilization of the French people to defend the
revolution.
 In several provinces, peasants revolted against this order and
against the Jacobins who had killed the King and suppressed
the Church.
 Committees of Public Safety were formed to deal with
enemies internal and external.
Reign of Terror
1793-1794
 Among the leaders of these committees were
 Georges Danton
 Jean Paul Marat
 Maximilien Robespierre, who was called both “incorruptible”
and “a tyrant.” He became the most powerful man in France,
determined to establish a “Republic of Virtue.”
 He also intended to replace every existing institution of
France from the calendar, to the religion with something new
and rational. And he would execute anyone who opposed
anything he proposed.
 Up to 40,000 people were executed during his reign of
terror.
Reign of Terror
 Ultimately, Robespierre began executing his allies.
 They in turn had him condemned for Treason and executed
in July of 1794.
 With his death, the Reign of Terror ended, although the wars
against the 1st Coalition continued.
 What was left of the Assembly, now proposed a 3rd
Constitution with a 5 man executive committee called
the Directory. They would ensure that no second
Robespierre would emerge, instead French would get
Napoleon.
Napoleon Bonaparte
1769-1821
 Born August 15, 1769 on the island of Corsica, to Carlo &
Letizia Buonaparte members of the minor Corsican nobility.
He was the 2nd of 8 children.
 Corsica had been under the control of the Italian city state of
Genoa until 1768, when it was turned over to the French
Monarchy of Louis XV.
 The population, which regarded itself as Italian in language,
custom and tradition briefly revolted and Carlo was a leader
of the rebellion. When he determined that revolt was
hopeless he gave his support to the French governor and
received a minor office as a result.
Early Years
1769-1785
 Letizia proved to be the most important influence in her
son’s early life. She provided for his early education and
constantly emphasized the importance of courage,
determination and the will to succeed.
 In 1778, at the age of 9, she arranged for her son to enter a
preparatory school in France. There he was bullied for his
small stature and “foreign” accent. His mother responded to
his requests to be brought home with letters which
encouraged him to grow in the face of adversity.
 Within a year, his family managed to gain for him an
appointment to the Military Academy of Brienne-leChateau.
Early Years
 Napoleon spent five years at Brienne. He excelled at
mathematics, was passable in history and received low marks
in music, dancing and social skills.
 He did well in military studies and, even though it was
suggested he might “make a very good sailor”, he applied for
a received admission to the Ecole Militaire de Paris,
France’s most important military training school.
 He completed a two year program of studies in one year and,
in 1785, was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the
royal artillery. He was 16.
The Revolution
1789-1795
 In 1785, France was at peace, and Napoleon had no chance to
put his military training into practice. He actually spent
better than a year and a half back home in Corsica, helping
his mother take care of her family after his father died of
stomach cancer.
 When the events surrounding the establishment of the
National Assembly occurred in 1789, Napoleon eagerly
embraced the calls for revolutionary change.
 He hoped that Corsica might regain its freedom from France,
and resigned his commission to join the newly formed
National Guard of Corsica with the rank of lieutenant
colonel, at age 20.
The Revolution
 Despite his appointment, the revolutionary leaders on
Corsica did not trust him, because of his father’s betrayal of
their earlier rebellion. Eventually, his entire family was
forced into exile in France.
 In France, he joined the Jacobin’s, and re-entered the new
Army of the Republic as a major. In December 1793, he
commanded artillery which was used to drive occupying
British forces out of the port city of Toulon. Napoleon was
wounded in the process and was rewarded by promotion to
rank of brigadier general at age 24.
The Revolution
 Napoleon’s bravery and success brought him to the attention
of Maximillien Robespierre. The dictator decided to appoint
him to the command of all artillery in the army invading
Italy.
 Shortly after issuing the order in 1794, Robespierre was
arrested and executed. Napoleon was arrested and charged
with treason for being a favorite of the tyrant. After 10 days
in prison he was cleared and released.
 For the next year, he was free but under suspicion and his
career seemed to be at a dead end.
 About the only good news in his life was the beginning of a
romance with Josephine Beauharnais.
Josephine de Beauharnais
 A 32 year old widow and mother of 2 young girls, her
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wealthy husband had been executed by Robespierre during
the Reign of Terror.
She was politically well connected but was without money as
all of his property had been confiscated by the government.
She met Napoleon at a Ball and was attracted to him and to
the thought that, as a member of Corsican nobility, he might
be wealthy.
Napoleon was attracted to her and believed that she had
inherited her late husband’s substantial fortune.
When each learned the truth about the other, they agreed to
marry anyway on March 9, 1796.
The Cannonade
October 5, 1795
 Under the newly created government of the Directory, an
attempt was made to restore a degree of political freedom in
an attempt to stabilize the internal conditions of France.
Émigrés were allowed to return home. Some promptly
began to plan the restoration of the Monarchy.
 In October, 1795 about 30,000 citizens, incited by the
monarchists began to mass in Paris and announced their plan
to seize the Assembly by force.
 The Directory ordered Napoleon to take command of field
artillery batteries and stop the attempt. Would a Frenchman
open fire on fellow citizens?
The Cannonade
 Apparently, one born on Corsica would.
 Napoleon positioned his guns, hub to hub in the main
boulevard leading towards the Assembly.
 As the mob advanced, Napoleon ordered the gunners to open
fire. The front ranks were riddled with grape-shot. The
remainder broke and ran.
 Napoleon later claimed that he had simply given them a
“whiff of grape-shot.”
 Napoleon had saved the Republic, he became the hero of the
moment. His star was on the rise again.
The Italian Campaign
1796-1797
 Following the Cannonade, the Directors appointed Napoleon
second in command to the Army of the Interior, that is all
forces inside France.
 Some of them were nervous that a man who had turned his
guns on one political faction, could turn them against any
faction, including the one in power.
 They decided that Napoleon’s military talents would better,
and more safely, be employed in fighting against the Austrians
in Northern Italy.
 Two days after his wedding to Josephine, he left for Italy.
The Italian Campaign
 The army he was given was poorly equipped and badly lead.
Napoleon would soon change all of that. In doing so he
gained the absolute faith and loyalty of his soldiers, a
characteristic he would retain throughout his career. His
men truly loved him.
 Within a few weeks, he managed to capture the city of
Milan and liberate its people for republican rule.
 In successive battles, he would defeat the forces of Naples,
Parma and Modena.
 Finally, he defeated the Austrians and forced them to sign
the Treaty of Campo Formio, effectively ending the 1st
Coalition.
Egyptian Campaign
1798-1799
 Napoleon’s return to France was an overwhelming triumph.
He was adored by the masses and had the undying loyalty of
every soldier of the Republic.
 About the only Parisians not wild about him were the
Directors, who now feared his popularity and ability even
more than before he had been sent to Italy.
 How could they control this hero whose popularity increased
even as their diminished?
 Easy, have him attack Great Britain, about the only member
of the 1st Coalition still actively fighting France.
Egyptian Campaign
 Easier said then done.
 Napoleon would consider invasions plans for Britain
throughout the remainder of his military career.
 He always arrived at the same conclusion: It could not be
done until the French Navy could control the English
Channel.
 At various times, he considered, balloons, tunnels, and
submarines but ultimately realized that only a secure water
passage to Britain would allow an invasion to succeed.
 But Britain might be vanquished without being invaded,
through Egypt.
Egyptian Campaign
 By the end of the 18th century, much of Britain’s wealth was
derived from its growing control of India. Much of this
wealth was carried across the Indian Ocean, transported by
caravan across the Isthmus of Suez, and then shipped over the
Mediterranean to the Atlantic and Britain.
 By seizing control of Egypt, this trade route would be
severed. Britain would be bankrupted and would sue for
peace. France would be victorious.
 Even better, Egypt was controlled by the Mameluks,
corrupt and weak governors serving the likewise weak
Ottoman Empire.
Egyptian Campaign
 Napoleon organized an Army of 35,000 men, many of them
veterans of his Italian campaign. He assembled a fleet of
transports and a small squadron of naval escorts. He
arranged for a larger French fleet to sail into the Atlantic to
draw away the British fleet stationed off the French coast.
 Napoleon captured the island of Malta from the Knights of
St. John of Jerusalem and pressed on to Egypt.
 In July, 1798 he landed at Alexandria and marched south
along he Nile to the vicinity of Cairo. There in the sight of
the Pyramids, he exhorted his men that “40 centuries looked
down” on their endeavor. He crushed the Mameluks in the
“Battle of the Pyramids.” Egypt was his.
Egyptian Campaign
 Having conquered Egypt, Napoleon set out to establish
French administration.
 He also employed a corps of historians, architects and artists
to begin an intensive study of the wonders of ancient Egypt.
He is actually is the Father of Egyptology.
 One of the discoveries, the Rosetta Stone, allowed
hieroglyphics to be deciphered by a French scholar Joseph
Champollion.
 He shipped an obelisk from Egypt and had it emplaced at the
site of the guillotine, it is still there.
Egyptian Campaign
 Unfortunately, there were two opponents Napoleon could
not defeat: Admiral Horatio Nelson and mosquito born
disease.
 Admiral Nelson, who had been decoyed into the Atlantic,
returned to the Mediterranean and attached Napoleon’s naval
forces off the mouth of the Nile River.
 The “Battle of the Nile” ended in the French fleet being
destroyed and dispersed. Napoleon was cut off from
resupply from France.
 Nelson will remain Napoleon’s greatest nemesis for the next
7 years. He will become England’s greatest hero.
Egyptian Campaign
 The Ottoman Empire declared war on France, they were
joined by Russia and Austria. All of them aligned with Britain
to form the 2nd Coalition.
 Napoleon advanced north from Egypt into Palestine and
Syria but was forced back to Egypt when his army began to
suffer enormous losses to typhus and malaria, diseases spread
by the bite of mosquitoes.
 His army continued to shrink in numbers and could not be
reinforced because of British naval superiority. Austrian
forces won victories in Northern Italy and threatened France.
 An Ottoman Army, with British support, advanced on Egypt.
Egyptian Campaign
 Napoleon made a brutal tactical decision to abandon his
Army of Egypt, withdrawing only his personal staff and
contingent of scholars by small boat through the British
blockade. His army fought on for 2 more years.
 Many of the troops he left behind died from disease and
mistreatment at the hands of the Turks. Some were held as
slaves.
 Napoleon returned to France expecting to be shot for his
failure. Instead he was welcomed as a hero for what he had
attempted.
 His brothers Joseph and Lucien both worked to increase his
standing and to attack the reputation of the Directors.
Coup d’ Etat
November 9,1799
 Napoleon formed an alliance with the original spokesman for
the 3rd Estate, Emmanuel Sieyes. Sieyes wished to replace
the Directory with a more powerful, and less corrupt,
executive of 3 men, the Consulate.
 Napoleon surrounded the Assembly Hall with troops. He
then entered the hall and called on the members to enact
laws bringing about this change. When some of them
refused, he withdrew but quickly returned with his soldiers
who cleared the hall with bayonets.
 Later, those who supported him were readmitted and voted
the change, appointing Napoleon the First Consul within a
year he was the only Consul.
Napoleonic Government
 Once the consulate was established, Napoleon moved quickly
to consolidate his power. Within 2 months, a new
constitution was written and submitted to the people for
their approval. In this plebiscite, 3.5 million people voted
to adopt it, while only 1,500 voted against it.
 Napoleon would claim nearly unanimous support for his
government and for all of his plans. (In reality, over one half
of all eligible voters did not vote.)
 By 1802, Napoleon presented himself as First Consul for
Life, and again was overwhelmingly supported by those who
bothered to vote.
Napoleonic Government
 Napoleon created new internal divisions in France, the
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Departements, which exist to this day.
He established a Ministry of the Interior, to supervise
these districts through appointed prefects, who, in turn,
controlled all local governments and appointed all local
officials.
Napoleon controlled the entire system, and saw to it that
only men loyal to him held office at any level.
He reorganized the Assembly, dividing it into 3 houses, non
of which had any real power to enact laws or veto his actions.
He created a secret police force that became a model for such
groups as the Gestapo and the KGB.
Napoleonic Reforms
 Napoleon shrewdly guessed the people would accept tyranny
in return for stability and efficiency of government. He
would enact a significant number of reforms including:
 Abolition of income taxes imposed by the Directory.
 Welcomed the return of Lafayette to France.
 Elimination of the revolutionary calendar.
 Elimination of the annual celebration of Louis XVI’s death.
 Encouragement of the creation and expansion of small
businesses.
 In addition to these he would enact 4 major and long lasting
reforms.
Major Reforms
 Concordat of 1801: Resolves the split between the
Catholic Church and France created in 1791. recognized as
the majority religion in France. Some church property
restored. Pope oversees the appointments of all clergy who
remain civil servants. Freedom of all religions guaranteed.
 National System of Education: To create citizens who
are well educated and loyal to the state. A national university
will train teachers and supervise the curriculum of primary
schools.
 Lycees, technical high schools, will educate students to
work in the arts, crafts, sciences and agriculture. The system
will be standardized and open to all students.
Major Reforms
 Financial Reforms: He sought to reduce the high inflation
rate by creating a National Bank to control the flow of
currency and establish its uniform value.
 He promised and delivered a balanced budget, and
eliminated the notorious corruption of the Directory.
 He reformed the tax code to ensure equity for all
taxpayers. He reduced internal tariffs to encourage the
growth of trade.
 He ultimately increased the wealth of France by the
conquest of new territories and the collection of
reparations from defeated enemies.
Major Reforms
 The Code Napoleon: Perhaps his greatest, and most long
lasting achievement. It survives to this day, not only in
France, but in countries on every continent where the French
played a role in their history.
 France had thousands of laws, in hundreds of different codes
dating as far back and the ancient Gauls and the Roman
occupation. They often contradicted each other.
 Napoleon insisted on one set of laws for both criminal and civil
cases should exist throughout France. Both the monarchy and
the revolutionaries had attempted this and failed. Napoleon got
it done and was directly involved in the process.
Major Reforms
 Some of the ideas of the Revolution were protected such as
freedom of religion and the rights of peasants to purchase
land.
 Some ideas seem counter-revolutionary:
 Employers are always favored over employees.
 Children are absolutely subject to the will of their fathers, who
could inflict corporal punishment and even imprison them.
 Women’s rights all but vanished. Daughters are subject to their
fathers. Wives are subject to their husbands. “Women should
stick to knitting.”
 There is a presumption of guilt for anyone accused of a
crime, the opposite of the Anglo-American premise of
innocence until proven guilty.
Major Reforms
 The Code Napoleon took a decade to complete, it was
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promulgated in 1810 by the Emperor Napoleon.
All Frenchmen were now subject to the same law.
As French armies occupied other countries, they carried the
code to Belgium, the Netherlands and Italy.
In latter decades, it became the law of French colonies in
Africa and Southeast Asia. During the 1860’s, the French
occupied Mexico, and left the Code behind as the basis for
Mexican law to this day.
Napoleon himself said that his 40 major battlefield victories
would be forgotten, but his law would live forever.
Emperor Napoleon I
 By May,1804, Napoleon had decided that he would complete
the consolidation of power. He directed the Senate of the
Republic to vote him the office of Emperor.
 He invited the Pope to attend the coronation, and when his
Holiness declined the invitation, he forced him to attend.
 On December 2, 1804 in Notre Dame Cathedral, Napoleon
took the crown and placed it on his own head. He then
crowned Josephine as Empress.
 In 1805, Napoleon informed the Holy Roman Emperor that
his 805 year old title no longer existed by order of Napoleon.
Expanding French Empire
1800-1812
 Even as Napoleon developed his internal control of France
and transformed its government, he continued to extend
France’s power beyond its borders.
 In late 1800, he took advantage of Austria’s inclusion in the
2nd Coalition to plan and launch a major invasion across the
Alps into Austrian occupied Northern Italy. Despite being
outnumbered, he won an overwhelming victory at Marengo
and again Austria sued for peace.
 1801 saw the Army of Egypt defeated finally by Turks and
British troops. Britain, feeling less threatened agreed to a
peace settlement with France, the Treaty of Amiens signed
in 1802. It would last less than 2 years.
Haiti & Louisiana
 During this brief interlude of peace, Napoleon dispatched an
Army to the Caribbean to put down the “slave revolt” which
had established a “republic” in the French colony of what is
now Haiti. As in Egypt, mosquitoes, carrying Yellow Fever,
decimated his army and in the end, the French withdrew.
 Napoleon decided to sell the Louisiana territory, held by
France in North America, to the U.S. rather than risk its
occupation by Britain when the war between the two
resumed.
 $15 Million dollars in gold purchased 828,000 square miles
in 1803. He invested the money in naval expansion.
Expanding French Empire
 Not long after the sale of Louisiana, Britain declared war on
France. He again considered an invasion of Britain, but still
had no means of crossing the Channel. He formed an
Alliance with Spain and hoped that the combined fleets might
solve his problem.
 Meanwhile, Britain was joined by Austria, Russia and Sweden
in the 3rd Coalition. Instead of invading Britain, Napoleon
invaded Austria and defeated an Austro-Russian Army at
Austerlitz. Both nations withdrew from the Coalition and
Austria formed an alliance with France.
Trafalgar
October, 1805
 Even while his armies were marching into Austria, Napoleon
was again to suffer a major defeat at the hands of Horatio
Nelson.
 The Spanish and French Fleets joined together off the west
coast of Spain and apparently were preparing to sweep up the
English Channel in an attempt to gain control of the passage
for an invasion force.
 Admiral Nelson launched an audacious attack, utilizing new
tactics, against them off Cape Trafalgar. He destroyed or
captured a majority of their force. Napoleon would never
recover sufficient naval power to consider an invasion again.
 Nelson died during the battle and remains a national hero.
The French commander shot himself.
Expanding French Empire
 Despite his defeat at sea, Napoleon continued to expand his
control of the continent.
 Occupied Holland and made his brother, Louis, king.
 Named his brother, Joseph, king of Naples
 Created a German state, Westphalia, for his brother Jerome.
 Created states in Italy for two of his sisters.
 Awarded his generals with small states in the newly created
Confederation of the Rhine.
 Declared war on Prussia and defeated their armies at Jena and
Auerstadt.
 Led his Army, in triumph into Berlin.
The Continental System
Economic Warfare
 Victorious on land, but defeated at sea, Napoleon again seeks
an economic solution to the problem of Great Britain.
 He created his Continental System to cut all trade
between Great Britain and its European markets. France, the
nations it occupied and the nations allied with it would cut all
trade with the English. Nations which traded would be
attacked.
 Britain would soon be bankrupt and in the ensuing economic
chaos, either a peace treaty would be negotiated or the
English population would rise up in revolt and overthrow the
government and the monarchy!
British Orders in Council
and Blockade
 Britain’s response was to expand its naval blockade of ports
on the continent.
 All shipping bound for nations supporting Napoleon were
subject to boarding, search and seizure if found to be
carrying contraband cargo as enumerated in the Orders in
Council.
 This included ships from neutral countries like the United
States. President Jefferson, desperate to avoid conflict at sea,
passed an Embargo Act prohibiting American ships from
sailing to Europe and Britain. An economic depression
followed.
Continental System
 Ultimately, the impact on Great Britain was far less than the
impact on the rest of the world, and most especially on
France.
 The British maintained their trade with their own colonies
and actually increased trade with the U.S.
 British goods were smuggled into Europe and sold at higher
prices because of the shorter supply.
 France and the other “partners” found themselves facing
shortages and loss of revenues from tariffs no longer
collected as the blockade became ever more effective.
Peninsular War
1807-1812
 Portugal, Britain’s oldest ally and trading partner, had
remained out of the system. They traded with the British and
sold those goods to all of Europe.
 Napoleon invaded Portugal and the royal family of
Braganza fled to the safety of their colony of Brazil.
 Napoleon now decided to replace the current monarch of
Spain with his brother Joseph. He led forces into Spain and
was victorious in every battle against the Spanish army.
 But having defeated the official forces, he found himself
confronting a popular uprising of the masses and a new form
of combat—Guerrilla warfare.
Peninsular War
 The Spanish peasantry rejected the blatant interference of the
French in their internal affairs. They held that the new king
was a foreigner and an atheist seeking to destroy the Godgiven system of Spanish monarchy.
 They took up arms and conducted an ever intensifying
asymmetrical war against the French.
 The French response was to execute all irregular troops they
captured and to punish civilian populations randomly when
they had no combatants to execute.
 These same tactics were adopted by the Nazi’s in World War
II.
Peninsular War
 The British mobilized a force of 14,000 regulars, an
enormous force by British standards, and sent them to assist
the guerrillas, under the command of General Arthur
Wellesley. He won a series of hit and run victories.
 Napoleon was forced to continuously increase the number of
troops occupying Spain, eventually he would have 250,000
men fighting there and getting no closer to victory. He came
to call Spain “his ulcer.”
 France’s increasing problems in Spain, led other nations to
take advantage of the situation.
The Second Empress Napoleon
Marie Louise
 In 1809, Austria tested the waters and withdrew from its
alliance with France. Napoleon promptly defeated them.
 To solidify the “renewed” alliance, he proposed to marry the
18 year old daughter of the Emperor of Austria, the princess
Marie Louise.
 Josephine had failed the only expectation that Napoleon had
of her, to bear a son and heir. He divorced her in December
1809 and demanded that the Bishop of Paris grant an
annulment as well.
 In March, 1810, Napoleon married her 3 times, first by
proxy and then in person in both civil and religious
ceremonies!
Napoleon II
The King of Rome
 In May, 1811, Marie Louise gave birth to a son.
 Napoleon now had an heir to inherit his empire.
 As a gift to the newly arrived Prince Imperial, Napoleon
conferred on him the additional title and holdings of:
King of Rome.
 Marie Louise achieved great popularity with the people of
France for delivering Napoleon II.
 Napoleon was delighted with both his son and his young
wife.
 Napoleon continued to send letters to Josephine always
beginning: “My Love.”
Russian Campaign
1812
 Russia was one of the nations defeated by Napoleon and
forced into the Continental System. Its economy had
suffered as a result.
 The Russian Tsar, Alexander I, was also disturbed by the
marriage of Napoleon to Marie Louise of Austria, which he
feared might be prelude to a joint attack against Russia.
 In 1812, the Tsar openly defied Napoleon by re-establishing
trade with Britain. He also mobilized an Army of 240,000
men to defend against the attack he knew must follow.
 He doubted that his army could defeat Napoleon but he
believed that the size of his territory just might.
Russian Campaign
1812
 Napoleon could not afford to ignore the actions of the Tsar.
He realized that if Russia abandoned the system, every other
member would be tempted to do so.
 He also was confronted by the failure of his armies to hold
Spain and Portugal from the guerrilla forces backed by army
of the British under Arthur Wellesley.
 He needed a decisive victory, so he mobilized the largest
force ever fielded by France, 650,000 men, and took
command himself.
 This Grand Armee, included Dutch, Italian, German,
Austrian, Polish and Swiss troops as well as French forces.
Russian Campaign
The Advance
 June 24, 1812, Napoleon crosses the Russian frontier.
 The Russian army under Marshall Kutuzov does not
contest the invasion and begins a constant retreat as
Napoleon led his army toward Moscow.
 As his army advanced his supply line grew longer and he was
forced to leave men to protect it.
 Kutuzov ordered his men to destroy everything of value as
they retreated: towns, farms, fields, even wells were polluted
with the carcasses of farm animals slaughtered for the
purpose. This “scorched earth” strategy denied Napoleon
of supplies and shelter as he advanced.
Russian Campaign
The Advance
 Having abandoned thousands of square miles of territory to
the French, the Tsar ordered Kutuzov to take a stand 70 miles
west of Moscow. At Borodino the Russian army was
defeated, as its commander had predicted, but remained
intact and continued to retreat, to, through and beyond
Moscow.
 On September 15, the French entered the city and began to
loot it. By that night, the city was in flames. Two thirds of
the city was destroyed. Each side blamed the other for fire.
 By October 8th the Tsar had refused all offers to negotiate a
settlement and Napoleon began a retreat as the 1st snow fell.
Russian Campaign
The Retreat
 Napoleon’s Grand Armee formed a column 60 miles long. It
marched through the lands devastated by the scorched earth
policy. Temperatures dropped into the sub-zero range and
snow drifted as high as a man.
 The Russian army pursued the retreating French. They
attacked from the rear and on the flanks, but never allowed a
full battle to develop. Their hit and run tactics wore down
the French without the loss of Russian life.
 Napoleon marched along side his men to boost their morale
but men died from cold, disease, starvation, and Russian
snipers. By the time he crossed back into Poland he had less
than 50,000 men. He had been beaten by “General Winter.”
The Battle of the Nations
Leipzig
 Napoleon scrambled to construct a new army even as his
former allies turned against him and again joined the British
led coalition. He ordered the abandonment of Spain and
Portugal to provide reinforcements. New drafts of troops
were raised in France.
 Having won more battles against the pursuing Russians and
vengeful Prussians, he managed to gain a brief truce. But
ultimately, virtually all of his former allies sent forces to
confront his army at Leipzig, in southeastern Germany.
 320,000 coalition forces attacked 160,000 French troops
commanded by Napoleon. For two days he outfought them,
on the third day, they overwhelmed him. His 1st defeat.
Collapse of the Empire
1813-1814
 Napoleon escaped from the field of Leipzig and moved west.
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He continued to attempt to block the armies in Germany.
Rebellions took place in Holland and Italy.
Wellesley, now raised to the title of Duke of Wellington,
invaded France from Spain.
The various German states united in war against France and
were joined by the Russian Army of Kutuzov.
The coalition forces declared they sought not war with
France but the overthrow of Napoleon. They invaded France
from the East. Even members of the French legislature now
began to question the wisdom of supporting Napoleon.
Elba
1814-1815
 By March, 1814, the coalition armies reached the outskirts of
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Paris. Napoleon decided that he would not fight a battle
which would lead to the destruction of the city.
On April 11, Napoleon abdicated his title of Emperor.
The Coalition decided that he would be exiled for life to the
86 square mile island of Elba off the northwest Coast of Italy.
He would be granted the title of King and the French would
pay him an annual pension.
His wife and son would not be allowed to join him.
The Bourbon’s were restored under Louis XVIII.
The Hundred Days
March 1-July 18, 1815
 Louis XVIII quickly became unpopular. He was not
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Napoleon.
The economy stagnated.
The church demanded the return of all lands which would
mean confiscation of lands redistributed to the peasants.
Veteran’s longed for their exiled hero.
Revolutionaries longed for the restoration of a republic.
Napoleon longed to escape from the exile of Elba and rejoin
his family in Paris.
Josephine had died of “a broken heart” during the exile.
The Hundred Days
 Napoleon decided that he might be able to pull off a return
to power.
 On March 1, 1815 he sailed from Elba and landed on the
Mediterranean coast near Cannes, with an army of 1100
men, who had followed him into exile.
 He led his army on a circuitous route through France,
recruiting veterans along the way.
 King Louis dispatched a force led by a general to arrest
Napoleon. At Grenoble he confronted the troops alone: “I
am your Emperor, kill me or follow me!” Vive Le Emperor!
The Hundred Days
 When the King sent a larger force under Marshall Ney, his
military commander in chief, Ney, who served under
Napoleon declared that he would bring him to Paris in a cage
but instead joined his cause.
 King Louis abandoned Paris, and on March 20 Napoleon
entered the city to the ringing of church bells. He had
regained power without a shot being fired.
 Leaders of the Coalition, meeting in Vienna to resolve the
fate of post Napoleonic Europe, found that they now were
facing their worst nightmare– Napoleon himself.
 They moved 200,000 troops into Belgium to attack France.
They planned to mobilize even more troops in Germany.
The Hundred Days
 Napoleon proclaimed that he was now Emperor of the
French and called for the creation of a army of 120,000 men
to attack the allied force in Belgium. He would take the field
himself, one last time.
 Napoleon marched north into Belgium and confronted the
armies of Marshall Blucher of Prussia and Britain’s Duke of
Wellington.
 On June 16, he successfully attacked the Prussians and forced
them to retreat.
 On June 18, he launched a fierce attack against Wellington at
a village called Waterloo.
Waterloo
June 18, 1815
 At Waterloo, Napoleon apparently had the upper hand, early
in the fight. Wellington’s army was badly mauled but gave no
ground. Late in the day, when it appeared that Napoleon
would win, the army of Blucher attacked from the flank and
Napoleon was defeated.
 His Imperial Guard made a brave last stand to cover his
escape and he fled the battlefield in a carriage. He returned
to Paris and abdicated in favor of his son.
 Marshall Ney was captured and shot for treason.
 On July 15 Napoleon surrendered to the captain of a British
warship and was taken to England.
St. Helena
1815-1821
 The British considered shooting him, but feared that it would
incite more violence in France.
 They decided, with the other partners in the coalition to
impose another, permanent and remote exile on Prisoner
Napoleon.
 He was transported to the volcanic island of St. Helena, 700
miles off the coast of Africa in the South Atlantic. He was
allowed 50 companions who would share his exile. He was
guarded by a regiment of British infantry and the British navy
maintained a naval patrol off the island to prevent his escape
or rescue. He remained there until his death in 1821.
Afterward
 Napoleon was buried on the island of St. Helena.
 The British refused all requests from his family that he be
transported to France for re-burial. He was regarded as
dangerous even while he was dead.
 His wife and son spent their remaining years in the Imperial
palace in Vienna. Napoleon II died of tuberculosis at age 21.
He never reigned as Emperor of France or even as King of
Rome.
 In 1840, the royal government of France gained permission
to move Napoleon to Paris. He is buried in a marble
sarcophagus 2 stories tall. It was France’s greatest attraction
until the Eiffel tower was built. In 1940, Hitler paid his
respects.
The Congress of Vienna
1814-1815
 Following Napoleon’s first abdication in 1814, the leaders of
the Coalition met in Vienna to decide the future course of
European history.
 Prince Klemens von Metternich, the foreign minister of
Austria, emerged as the dominant voice in the proceedings.
 He was determined to restore peace and stability to Europe
and to solidify the importance of the Austrian Empire.
 He believed that if they were successful Europe would enjoy
at least a century of peace.
Concert of Europe
 If all the nations of Europe, including the Bourbon kingdom
of France, would work together, like the various instruments
in an orchestra, they could produce a beautiful harmony that
everyone would enjoy.
 The four greatest powers, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia and
Austria, called the Quadruple Alliance, would guarantee the
security of all the rest.
 Tsar Alexander, not to be outdone proposed a “Holy
Alliance” of Christian monarchs to restore order throughout
the world, including the America’s. It never accomplished
anything except the Monroe Doctrine of the U.S.