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Origins of World War I The Great War August 1914-November 1918 Condition of Pre-War Europe Anxieties and Uncertainties Causes and Catalyst Imperialism, Nationalism, Militarism, Commercial Competition, & Alliance System Balkan Crisis Declarations of War Alliance System Triple Alliance Triple Entente Greater Serbia Gustavo Princip Pan Slavism Total War From Balkan Crisis to World War Schlieffen Plan Pre-War Social Tensions recede in Patriotism’s Wake Battle of the Marne A New Kind of War From an Offensive to a Defensive Strategy War Front and Trench Warfare Total War Mobilization for War War Front Home Front Trench Warfare Causes and Catalysts – Nationalism and Social Darwinism: Competition of Nations – Imperialism: Increasing Entanglements (Sudan, Moroccan Crises) – Commercial Competition – Alliance System – Militarism: Increase in Size of Armies (Role of Conscription) Increased spending for Armaments and Technology Increased Military Expenditures Militarization of Society Alliance System Bismarck “In a world of five powers, one should be on the side of three” By late 19th century, Concert of Europe now in discord 1879: Dual Alliance Germany & AustroHungary 1882: Triple Alliance G + AH + Italy 1894: France & Russia 1904: Britain & France 1907: Triple Entente Russia, Britain & France Militarization of Society Founded by Robert Baden-Powell in 1908 Causes and Catalysts Nationalism and Social Darwinism: Competition of Nations Imperialism: Increasing Entanglements (Sudan, Moroccan Crises) Commercial Competition Alliance System Militarism: – Increase in Size of Armies – Increased spending for Armaments and Technology – Increased Military Expenditures – Militarization of Society European Alliances in 1914 Causes and Catalysts Nationalism and Social Darwinism: Competition of Nations Imperialism: Increasing Entanglements (Sudan, Moroccan Crises) Commercial Competition Alliance System Militarism: – Increase in Size of Armies – Increased spending for Armaments and Technology – Increased Military Expenditures – Militarization of Society Catalyst: Balkan Crisis from June to July 1914 Catalyst to War Nationalism in the Balkans threatened Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire and European Peace Balkan Crises Rigid war planning Weak leadership among belligerent powers Ethnic Nationalism on the Rise Ethnic Makeup of Late 19th century Austro-Hungarian Empire Ethnic Nationalism and Rise of Pan-Slavism 1817: Serbia autonomous Disruptions within Ottoman Empire – 1875-1878: Revolt in the Balkans against Ottoman Rule Serbia, Montenegro and Russia against Ottomans – 1878: Congress of Berlin Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro independent Slavic Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian occupation – 1885: Bulgarian autonomy – Weakness of Ottoman Empire evident to Europe after internal revolution in 1908 After 1878 Berlin Conference Pan Slavism after 1878 –Serbian Calls for a “Greater Serbia” –1875-1878: Revolt in the Balkans against Ottoman Rule –1878 Settlement –1908: A-H formally annexes Bosnia & Herzegovina –Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 Ethnic Nationalism on the Rise Pan-Slavism on the rise – 1817: Serbia autonomous Disruptions within Ottoman Empire – 1875-1878: Revolt in the Balkans against Ottoman Rule Serbia, Montenegro and Russia against Ottomans – 1878: Congress of Berlin Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro independent Slavic Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian occupation – 1885: Bulgarian autonomy – Weakness of Ottoman Empire evident to Europe after internal revolution in 1908 Disruptions within Austro-Hungarian Empire – Serbian Calls for a “Greater Serbia” and for “self-determination” – 1908: A-H formally annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 wrest final territories away from Ottoman Empire Increasing Hostility directed to Austro-Hungarian Empire Balkans: 1914 Note and contrast ethnic lines With A-H borders Immediate Path to War: Balkan Crisis Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand June 28, 1914 Assassination by Gavrilo Princip a Bosnian student who was a member of the the “Black Hand” Immediate Path to War: Balkan Crisis Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand Germany’s “Blank Check” to Austria Austria's Ultimatum to Serbia Austria declares war on Serbia Russia mobilizes against Germany & A-H German ultimatum to Russia Germany declares war on Russia Germany declares war on France Germany troops invade Belgium Great Britain declares War on Germany Violation of Belgian neutrality JUNE 28 JULY 5 JULY 23 JULY 28 JULY 29 JULY 31 AUGUST 1 AUGUST 3 AUGUST 4 AUGUST 4 Reflections on the Origins of the War Austro-Hungary attacks Serbia Nationalism contributed to war Failure of Diplomacy contributed to war Europe underestimated war fever Declaration of War, August 1914 France: •Socialists support war •Union sacrée Germany: •Burgfrieden (party-truce) Great Britain •Irish Home Rule to be postponed •Militant Suffragists turned Dutiful Citizens •Monthly paper changes title Suffragette to Britannia •Support of Labour Through work Victory! Through Victory Peace! Munich, August 4th, 1914 Petrograd, August 1914 London Crowd on 4 August 1914 French Farewells, August 1914 Mobilizing for War Recruiting Posters Top Right: Italy Bottom Right: Germany Left: U.S. European Alliances in 1914 The Schlieffen Plan and the Battle of the Marne Schlieffen Plan: Goal to win a 2 front war Move thru Belgium Battle of the Marne: September 1914 1.275 million Germans 1.3 million French 125,000 British A new kind of fighting was necessary 600,000 casualties in one month Digging In 466 miles of Trenches From Belgium to Switzerland Hopes for an Offensive War Realities of a Defensive War Trench Warfare Technology German Machine Gunners Soldiers and Horses with gas masks French heavy guns Battle of Verdun, February 1916-April 1917 The Realities of Defensive Wars Trench Warfare as Defensive War War of Attrition World War One required engaged all sides to mobilize their states for Total War Total War •Total war requires the mobilization of all a nation’s resources and energies. •War requires sacrifice for war effort on all fronts (whether at the war front or on the home front). •Total war transforms the scope of the state and its accelerates change in society. •Conscription (Britain introduces conscription in May 1916) •government control over economy (end of British laissezfaire) •Rationing, controls over munitions & food •Nationalization of shipping and coal •increases control of and duties to individual •(social welfare,pensions, health insurance) •Transformation of women in workforce •Transformation of society and colonies Mobilizing for the War Front Germany Italy United States Total Men Mobilized Thru Recruitment and Conscription: 53% of male population between 1914-1918 in uniform Over 70 million men called into military service Over 35 million casualties and almost ten million combat deaths Austro-Hungary: Germany: Ottoman Empire: 7.8 million men 11 million men 2.9 million men France: British Empire: 8.4 million men 8.9 million men (incl.) 200,000 African soldiers 1.4 million Indian soldiers 415,000 Australian soldiers 130,000 New Zealanders 630,000 Canadians 5.6 million men 12 million men 4.7 million men mobilized Italy: Russia: United States: Women and the Home Front Women and the Home Front Women and War: From Home Front to War Front Women in British Munitions Factory (1918) British Women Loading Coal Sacks (1918) War portrayed by each side as a War of Cultures Civilization (France and Britain) Civic life, social values, liberalism, justice, civility, progress. Kultur (Germany, AustriaHungary): Purification, efficiency, God, national unity, glory Democracy (United States) Self-determination Portrayal of War as clash of Cultures Civilization (France and Britain) Kultur (Germany, Austro-Hungary) Civic life, social values, liberalism, justice, civility, progress Culture, purification, efficiency, God, national unity, glory German Propaganda: “It is sweet and fitting to die for Britain” The Prussian Butcher, 1915 Nicholas II and his family Gregory Rasputin (d. 1916) V. I. Lenin (d. 1924) War’s End Portion of John Singer Sargent’s, “Gassed” Chronology February 1917: Germany declares unrestricted sub warfare April 1917: Americans enter war 15 March 1918: Treaty of Brest Litovsk Russians withdraw Spring 1918: German “Victory” Drive July 1918: Allied Counter-Attack 3 November 1918: Austro-Hung. withdraws 7 November 1918: Germany asks for peace 9 November 1918: Kaiser flees German Republic declared in Weimar 11 November 1918: Armistice signed War’s End April 1917: Americans enter war 15 March 1918: Treaty of Brest Litovsk Russians withdrew 3 November 1918 AH withdrew 7 November 1918: German surrender 9 November 1918: Kaiser flees German Republic declared 11 November 1918: Armistice signed Impact and Consequences: Fall of Empires Huge Demographic Losses Social Transformations Indictment of Progress and Enlightenment Treaty of Versailles Losses in World War One •Over 70 million men called into military service •Over 35 million casualties and almost ten million combat deaths Country Total Mobilized Combat Deaths Civilian Deaths Total War Dead Austro-Hungary 7,800,000 1,300,000 300,000 1,600,000 9% Germany 11,000,000 2,000,000 760,000 2,760,000 12.5% Ottoman Empire 2,990,000 804,000 2,000,000 2,804,000 8% France 8,400,000 1,500,000 40,000 1,540,000 13.3% Britain and Empire 8,900,000 1,000,000 30,000 1,030,000 6.3% Russia 12,000,000 1,700,000 2,000,000 3,700,000 4.5% Italy 5,600,000 570,000 ------ 570,000 7% United States 4,700,000 114,000 ------ 114,000 .04% Summer of 1918: Influenza pandemic killed another 30 million people worldwide %Men 15-49 Allied leaders gather to dictate the peace: Clemenseau and Wilson Notes: Other images to follow could also be used for lecture. February 1917: Germany declares unrestricted submarine warfare April 1917: The United States enters the war Strike by Women in Paris May 1917 On June 28,1919, the Allied powers presented the Treaty of Versailles to Germany for signature. The following are the key territorial and political clauses. Article 22. Certain communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognised subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory [i.e., a Western power] until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory. Article 42. Germany is forbidden to maintain or construct any fortifications either on the left bank of the Rhine or on the right bank to the west of a line drawn 50 kilometres to the East of the Rhine. Article 45. As compensation for the destruction of the coal mines in the north of France and as part payment towards the total reparation due from Germany for the damage resulting from the war, Germany cedes to France in full and absolute possession, with exclusive right of exploitation, unencumbered and free from all debts and charges of any kind, the coal mines situated in the Saar Basin.... Article 49. Germany renounces in favor of the League of Nations, in the capacity of trustee, the government of the territory defined above. At the end of fifteen years from the coming into force of the present Treaty the inhabitants of the said territory shall be called upon to indicate the sovereignty under which they desire to be placed. AlsaceLorraine. The High Contracting Parties, recognizing the moral obligation to redress the wrong done by Germany in 1871 both to the rights of France and to the wishes of the population of Alsace and Lorraine, which were separated from their country in spite of the solemn protest of their representatives at the Assembly of Bordeaux, agree upon the following.... Article 51. The territories which were ceded to Germany in accordance with the Preliminaries of Peace signed at Versailles on February 26, 1871, and the Treaty of Frankfort of May 10, 1871, are restored to French sovereignty as from the date of the Armistice of November 11, 1918. The provisions of the Treaties establishing the delimitation of the frontiers before 1871 shall be restored. Article 119. Germany renounces in favor of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers all her rights and titles over her overseas possessions. Article 156. Germany renounces, in favour of Japan, all her rights, title and privileges . . . which she acquired in virtue of` the Treaty concluded by her with China on March 6, 1898, and of all other arrangements relative to the Province of Shantung. Article 159. The German military forces shall be demobilised and reduced as prescribed hereinafter Article 160. By a date which must not be later than March 31, 1920, the German Army must not comprise more than seven divisions of infantry and three divisions of cavalry. After that date the total number of effectives in the Army of the States constituting Germany must not exceed 100,000 men, including officers and establishments of depots. The Army shall be devoted exclusively to the maintenance of order within the territory and to the control of the frontiers. The total effective strength of officers, including the personnel of staffs, whatever their composition, must not exceed four thousand.... Article 231. The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies. Article 232. The Allied and Associated Governments recognize that the resources of Germany are not adequate, after taking into account permanent diminutions of such resources which will result from other provisions of the present Treaty, to make complete reparation for all such loss and damage. The Allied and Associated Governments, however, require, and Germany undertakes, that she will make compensation for all damage done to the civilian population of the Allied and Associated Powers and to their property during the period of the belligerency of each as an Allied or Associated Power against Germany. From The Treaty of Versailles and After: Annotations of the Text of the Treaty (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1944), Military Spending (Army and Navy) I. Peace Now, God be thanked Who has matched us with His hour, And caught our youth, and wakened us from sleeping, With hand made sure, clear eye, and sharpened power, To turn, as swimmers into cleanness leaping, Glad from a world grown old and cold and weary, Leave the sick hearts that honour could not move, And half-men, and their dirty songs and dreary, And all the little emptiness of love! Oh! we, who have known shame, we have found release there, Where there's no ill, no grief, but sleep has mending, Naught broken save this body, lost but breath; Nothing to shake the laughing heart's long peace there But only agony, and that has ending; And the worse friend and enemy is but Death. Rupert Brooke “1914” Rupert Brooke “1914” Peace Now, God be thanked Who has matched us with His hour, And caught our youth, and wakened us from sleeping, With hand made sure, clear eye, and sharpened power, To turn, as swimmers into cleanness leaping, Glad from a world grown old and cold and weary, Leave the sick hearts that honour could not move, And half-men, and their dirty songs and dreary, And all the little emptiness of love! Oh! we, who have known shame, we have found release there, Where there's no ill, no grief, but sleep has mending, Naught broken save this body, lost but breath; Nothing to shake the laughing heart's long peace there But only agony, and that has ending; And the worse friend and enemy is but Death. “1914” V. The Soldier If I should die, think only this of me: That there's some corner of a foreign field That is for ever England. There shall be In that rich earth a richer dust concealed; A dust whom England bore, shaped, made aware, Gave, once, her flowers to love, her ways to roam, A body of England's, breathing English air, Washed by the rivers, blest by suns of home. And think, this heart, all evil shed away, A pulse in the eternal mind, no less Gives somewhere back the thoughts by England given; Her sights and sounds; dreams happy as her day; And laughter, learnt of friends; and gentleness, In hearts at peace, under an English heaven. Weariness with the War by 1917 British execute 3,000 soldiers for cowardice & desertion Russians desert en masse: 1.5 million prisoners of war in Germany alone. May 1917: 30,000 French Soldiers stage mutiny. Over 500 executed and the many of the rest sent to penal battalions 1917-8 – Strikes break out in Germany & France Siegfried Sassoon, London Times (30 July 1917): "I am making this statement as an act of willful defiance of military authority, because I believe that the war is being deliberately prolonged by those who have the power to end it. I am a soldier, convinced that I am acting on behalf of soldiers.… I have seen and endured the sufferings of the troops, and I can no longer be a party to prolonging the sufferings for ends which I believe to be evil and unjust. I am not protesting against the conduct of the war, but against the political errors and insincerities for which the fighting men are being sacrificed. In behalf of those who are suffering now I make this protest against the deception which is being practised on them; also I believe that I may help to destroy the callous complacency with which the majority of those at home regard the continuance of agonies which they do not share, and which they have not sufficient imagination to realize." Changing Attitudes to War Wilfred Owen, "Dulce et decorum est" (c.1917) Bent double, like old beggars under sacks, Knock-kneed, coughing like hags, we cursed through sludge, Till on the haunting flares we turned our backs And towards our distant rest began to trudge. Men marched asleep. Many had lost their boots But limped on, blood-shod. All went lame; all blind; Drunk with fatigue; deaf even to the hoots Of tired, outstripped Five-Nines that dropped behind. Gas! GAS! Quick, boys! An ecstasy of fumbling, Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time; But someone still was yelling out and stumbling, And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime... Dim, through the misty panes and thick green light, As under a green sea, I saw him drowning, In all my dreams, before my helpless sight, He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning. If in some smothering dreams you too could pace Behind the wagon that we flung him in, And watch the white eyes writhing in his face, His hanging face, like a devil's sick of sin; If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs, Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cut Of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues, My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori Changing Attitudes to War 1915 Gas Attack Willfred Owen