Download The French Republic, Its Satellites, and Hostile States in 1799

Chapter 12
The Modernization of the Western World
The French Republic, Its Satellites, and Hostile States in 1799
1. The war against the European states by revolutionary France began on April 20, 1792, when a declaration of war was issued against Austria. By
1793 an informal coalition against France consisted of Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Russia. The
French army was quickly on the defensive, being left with only the area around Paris and the eastern frontier by July 1793. However, under the
guidance of the Committee of Public Safety, the army was rebuilt to a force of 1,169,000 men, making it the largest in Europe. In 1794 the allies were
pushed across the Rhine and the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) was conquered. This was followed in early 1795 by the fall of Holland and the
creation of the Batavian Republic under French tutelage.
2. The French army of Napoleon in 1797 crushed the Austrians in Lombardy. By the Treaty of Campo Formio, the Austrian Netherlands were ceded
to France, French occupation of the left bank of the Rhine was confirmed, and recognition was given to the newly formed Ligurian Republic
centered on the city of Genoa and the Cisalpine Republic around Milan. In return, Austria had a free hand in absorbing Venice into its empire.
3. It was also in 1797 after the death of a French general at the hands of a Roman mob that a French army invaded Rome. This was followed by the
creation of the Roman Republic under French rule. When Pope Pius VI protested this action he was made a French prisoner and died while in
custody. The situation offered Ferdinand IV of Naples an opportunity to defend the Church while expropriating papal territory. Rome was easily
conquered in November 1798 but the following month French troops came down from the north and defeated the Neapolitan army, chasing it back to
Naples which was seized by the French. The Parthenopean Republic was established in January 1799 but lasted only five months as Ferdinand
regained his throne with the help of the British navy.
4. In April of 1798 a French army invaded Switzerland and set up the Helvetic Republic under the protection of France.
5. The Treaty of Luneville in 1801 between France and Austria confirmed the provisions of Campo Formio and in addition legitimized the Batavian,
Helvetic, Cisalpine, and Ligurian Republics. Also reconfirmed was the recognition of the left bank of the Rhine from the North Sea to Switzerland
as French territory. Finally, Austria agreed to restructuring the map of Germany into a French dominated Confederation of the Rhine.
Questions:
1. How did the boundaries of France change between 1792 and 1801?
2. How did France restructure the lands that were conquered?
3. What were the social and economic consequences of France controlling such a large part of Europe?
The French Republic, Its Satellites, and Hostile States in 1799
 French Revolution and Napoleon
 The Old Regime
Absolute monarchy
Corruption in the court system, parlements
Estates General not met since 1614
 Clergy numbered 130,000
 Aristocracy was 2% of the population (400,000)
and owned 20-25% of the land
 Commoners composed 97% of the population
 Bourgeoisie
 Peasants, 80% of the population
Louis XVI, 1774-1792
 Debt
 Estates General called for May, 1789
 Three estates to vote as one as National Assembly formed
 Attack on the Bastille, July 14, 1789
 Great Fear
 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
 Constitution of 1791
 Civil Constitution of the Clergy
 Transferal of power from the aristocracy to the bourgeoisie
 Louis XVI attempts to flee France, June 1791; captured and
returned to Paris
 Demise of the Constitution of 1791
 War declared against Austria and Prussia, April 20, 1792
 King removed and republic proclaimed, August 1792
 Reign of Terror
Jacobins and the National Convention, September
1792
Execution of the king, January 21, 1793
Committee of Public Safety, April 1793-July 1794
 Maximilien Robespierre
 Republic of Virtue
Lazare Carnot
 Thermidorian Reaction
 End of the Terror and establishment of new constitution
 Active role of women in the revolution but few social
innovations
 The Directory
 Napoleon Bonaparte
 Command of the army in Italy, 1796
 Campaign in Egypt
 Return to France, 1799; conspiracy to overthrow the
government, November 1799
 The Consulate
Napoleon appointed First Consul
Peace with Britain, 1801
Concordat of 1801
Financial problems solved
Code Napoleon
Aristocracy of merit
The Napoleonic Empire, 1810-1813
1. A combined French and Spanish fleet being moved to Holland in preparation for an invasion of Britain was destroyed in October 1805 at Trafalgar
off the coast of Spain by a British fleet.
2. On land, the forces of Napoleon were repeatedly victorious. At Ulm in October 1805 a large Austrian army was defeated and soon thereafter
Vienna was occupied. In December 1805 Napoleon defeated the combined forces of Austria and Prussia at Austerlitz. The Treaty of Pressburg
resulted in Austria withdrawing from Italy and Napoleon being recognized as the king of Italy. The following year the Prussian army was defeated at
Jena and Auerstadt. Berlin was soon thereafter occupied. In 1807, Napoleon crushed the Russians at Friedland and seized East Prussia.
3. By the Treaty of Tilset (1807), Russia was permitted to take Finland from Sweden (an enemy of France) and France was free to take Portugal (a
British outpost). Out of Prussia's territory was carved the Grand Duchy of Warsaw under French protection. For Russia, there was concern when
in 1809 the territory, on its doorstep, was enlarged.
4. In November 1806 Napoleon issued the Berlin Decrees that prohibited his allies from trading with Britain. The Milan Decree the following year
sought to stop even neutral nations from trading with Britain. This Continental System hurt the European economy more than Britain as Napoleon
failed to comprehend how much the two economies were intertwined. Moreover, Britain declared that any port refusing to receive its goods would be
blockaded. Significantly, Britain had the navy to back up the promise while the French after Trafalgar had virtually no navy to stop them.
5. At the end of 1810, Russia withdrew from the Continental System prompting Napoleon to act. By June of 1812 Napoleon had amassed an army of
over 600,000 men, though by the time he reached Russia it was down to 422,000. Unwilling to do battle, the Russians retreated, embracing a
scorched earth policy. Only at Borodino, outside Moscow, did they give battle. The Russians inflicted 30,000 casualties on the French but suffering
twice as many for themselves. The French entered Moscow in September 1812 and promptly the city was set afire by the Muscovites. With winter
beginning to set in, Napoleon ordered withdrawal. Begun in October, the retreat turned into a disaster as the ravages of winter and attacking
Russians depleted the withdrawing troops. Only about 10,000 of the original number made it to German soil.
6. With a reconstituted army, Napoleon crushed Austria, Prussia, and Russia at Dresden in 1813 but a few months later he was decisively defeated
at Leipzig. An allied army followed Napoleon to Paris. He abdicated in March 1814. Exiled to Elba off the coast of Italy, Napoleon escaped in
March 1815 and fought one last battle at Waterloo where he was again decisively defeated on June 18, 1815.
Questions:
1. Why was Napoleon such a successful general?
2. Why was the Russian campaign the beginning of the end for Napoleon?
3. Why was Napoleon allowed to go into exile rather than be executed by the victorious allies?
The Napoleonic Empire, 1810-1813
 Napoleonic Empire
 Crowns himself emperor, 1804
 War against Britain, 1803
Battle of Trafalgar, October 21, 1805
 Military successes of Napoleon
 Continental System
Peninsular Wqar
Russia breaks Continental System
Invasions of Russia, 1812
 Defeat of Napoleon, 1814
 Hundred Days, 1815
Prussia and Austria after the Peace of Vienna, 1815
1. The Treaty of Paris in 1814 resulted in a lenient peace for France. The monarchy was restored with Louis XVIII (1814-1824) ascending the throne
and France was permitted to retain some of the territories in western Germany and parts of the Austrian Netherlands which it had captured by 1792.
2. Although Poland was reconstituted out of the Duchy of Warsaw, Prussia and Austria were allowed to keep some Polish territory. Thus, the new
Polish kingdom was only three-quarters the size of the previous Duchy of Warsaw. The crown was to be worn by the Russian tsar. To compensate
Prussia for the loss of some of its Polish lands, parts of Saxony and the kingdom of Westphalia were conceded as well as the left bank of the Rhine.
3. The Austrian Netherlands were handed over to Holland to create a united Netherlands. In return, Austria received the northern Italian provinces
of Lombardy and Venetia which would give it interests in the course of Italian affairs. The marriage in the Netherlands, however, was not a good
one since the two areas differed in culture, language, and religion. Likewise, there would be future resentment in Italy over Austrian interference.
4. In Italy, the Kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia was extended to the border with Switzerland.
5. Switzerland became a perpetually neutral state.
6. The Confederation of the Rhine created by Napoleon was replaced by the German Confederation. It was composed of thirty-nine independent
German states including parts of Prussia and the Austrian Empire. The presence of both states would lead to future conflicts over control of the
confederation.
7. Effectively, a belt had been placed around France to contain it from any future aggression: the Netherlands in the north and the German
Confederation, Switzerland, and Piedmont in the east. Moreover, Prussia had received considerable territory on France's eastern frontier to deter
any French aggression from that quarter.
Questions:
1. How was Europe reorganized after the Napoleonic Wars?
2. What was the rationale behind the restructuring of Europe at the Congress of Vienna?
3. What were the potential problems created by the "new Europe" constructed at the Congress of Vienna?
Prussia and Austria after the Peace of Vienna, 1815
Latin America in the Early Nineteenth Century
1. When Napoleon deposed the Spanish king in 1808, placing his brother Joseph on the throne, some colonial leaders cited ancient Spanish law to
declare that the removal justified the shift of sovereignty back to the people. Increasingly, authority was seized to hold in trust for the true king,
Ferdinand VII. Radicals, however, regarded the conditions as an opportunity to throw off the authority of Spain. Under the leadership of Simón
Bolívar in the north, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia were freed from Spanish control between 1810 and 1824. In the south, José de San
Martín, operating from independent Argentina, freed Chile in 1818. Under Bolívar, Gran Columbia (Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador) was
created. It did not work and by 1830 both Venezuela and Ecuador had fallen away.
2. With the French approaching Lisbon, the British spirited away King João VI in 1808 to the Portuguese colony of Brazil. When João was
summoned back to Portugal after the war, he left behind his son Pedro who took the lead as the sentiment for independence developed. When
Brazil declared independence in 1822, Pedro I (1822-1831) was crowned emperor. As discontent over his rule increased, Pedro was deposed in
1831. He was replaced by his five year old son Pedro II who would rule Brazil after a series of regencies until overthrown in 1889.
4. Radicals seized the opportunity for independence in Buenos Aires in 1810 and by 1816 the city and outlying provinces had formed the United
Provinces of the River Plate, the basis for the Argentine state. After a struggle with Brazil over adjoining territory in the northeast, Uruguay was
created in 1828 as a buffer.
5. Mexico became independent in 1821 following a conservative rebellion that was driven by fears of the consequences of a liberal revolt in Spain.
Like Brazil, Mexico established a monarchy in 1822 but it collapsed the following year and a republic was established. Brought into newly
independent Mexico was Central America. They separated themselves in 1823 as the United Provinces of Central America. In 1838, the United
Provinces disintegrated into five separate states.
6. In 1791 during the French Revolution the slaves in Saint Dominique (Haiti) under Toussaint L'Cverture rebelled against their masters. Napoleon
sent troops in 1799 to restore colonial order but weakened by disease, the French army was defeated. On January 1, 1804, the colony was
proclaimed independent. Off and on, the Haitians controlled the whole island until 1844 when the Dominican Republic won its independence.
7. In 1823 President James Monroe warned the Europeans against any attempts to regain their former colonies in the Americas. This so called
Monroe Doctrine eventually became U.S. policy.
8. Remaining as colonial possessions were British Honduras, Cuba (Spain), Puerto Rico (Spain), British Guiana, Dutch Guiana, and French
Guiana.
Questions:
1.Why would it be important that Latin America remain independent? How important was
the declaration by President Monroe of the United States
2. Why did some states opt for a republic and others for a monarchy?
Latin America in the Early Nineteenth Century
 Reform and Revolution
 Congress of Vienna led by foreign minister of Austria
Prince Klemens von Metternich
Push back France’s borders
Return of legitimate monarchs to power
 Louis XVIII of France
Ignores democratic and nationalist sentiments
 Concert of Europe
 French rebellion in 1830
 Revolt and Independence in Latin America
Rebellion on Saint Doninique (Haiti)
Impact of the Napoleonic Wars
Simón Bolivar and José de San Martín
Centers of Revolt in 1848-1849
1. The Revolutions of 1848 had their origin in France during the European industrial and agricultural depression of 1846. By the end of 1847 onethird of the workers in Paris were unemployed. When the government of King Louis-Philippe (1830-1848) failed to make timely changes, a rebellion
broke out which forced the king to abdicate in February 1848. After the provisional government closed some of the workshops another rebellion
forced the creation of a new constitution, thereby establishing the Second French Republic.
2. The news of the revolt in Paris and the activities of the proletariat gave strength in Germany to both the handicraft workers who wrecked machines
and factories and the peasants who burned and looted the homes of the nobility. Several German princes responded by offering liberal reforms
including constitutions. This was the case in Baden, Wurttemberg, and Saxony. In Prussia, King Frederick William IV (1840-1861) agreed in 1848
to establish a constitution and work for a united Germany after violence exploded in Berlin. A constituent assembly was formed but by early 1849 the
king disbanded it, granting a conservative constitution and reasserting rule by divine right. Meanwhile, more than 800 self-appointed German
delegates met in Frankfurt, the seat of the German Confederation, to write a federal constitution for a unified Germany. When the crown was offered
Frederick William, he turned it down.
4. In June 1848 Czech nationalism in Bohemia came into conflict with the nationalism of the dominant Germans. The differing aspirations played into
the hands of the Austrians who sought to reestablish their control. The Czech rebels in Prague were soon crushed.
5. The failures of 1830-1831 in Italy led to a new direction under the guidance of Guiseppi Mazzini who sought both unification and the expulsion of
the Austrians. In 1848 liberal rebellions spread north from Sicily. A republic was proclaimed in Venice and it attacked Austrian Lombardy but by
1849 both were back in Austrian hands. Generally, the Italian revolts had failed.
Questions:
1. What were the origins of the Revolutions of 1848?
2. Why did the Revolutions of 1848 generally fail?
Centers of Revolt in 1848-1849
Monroe Doctrine, 1823
Mexico
Brazil
 New Latin American states become economically dependent
 Social and Political development
 Karl Marx and Socialism
 Industrial working conditions
 Socialism
 Class conflict
 Revolutions of 1848
 Revolt in France; Second French Republic
 Revolts in Austria, Prussia, and Italy
Demands for more representative government
The Unification of Italy
1. Although the revolts generally failed in 1848, Piedmont retained its liberal constitution achieved under duress in March. To many middle class
Italians, Piedmont appeared to be the liberal, progressive state to lead the way to national unification.
2. Prior to 1859, Count Camillo di Cavour, the prime minister of Victor Emmanuel II, sought only to unite the states of northern and central Italy with
Piedmont. He had no interest in either the Papal States or the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies since their cultures were different from that of
Piedmont. Nevertheless, to expand into Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena, and part of the northern Papal States would require a powerful ally
to counter Austria. To this end he sought a French alliance with a promise of Nice and Savoy in return for military support. When Piedmont
provoked Austria to war in April 1859, France dutifully joined its ally in invading Lombardy. In July, France suddenly made peace with Austria and
withdrew from the war. Apparently it feared the mobilization of Prussian forces in support of Austria. The peace between Austria and Piedmont that
followed left Lombardy with Piedmont. Because France had not fulfilled its obligations, Piedmont also kept Nice and Savoy.
3. During the war between Piedmont and Austria, nationalists seized power in Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and parts of the Papal States.
Plebiscites were held in 1860 and the states voted to join Piedmont. For permitting the annexations, France received Nice and Savoy.
4. In the south, Giuseppe Garibaldi lent his support to a revolt in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. He captured Palermo in Sicily and by
September 1860 the entire kingdom had fallen. He pushed on to Naples and prepared to attack Rome that would undoubtedly bring France into the
conflict as protector of the papacy. Cavour feared French intervention and thus struck first into the Papal States and moved into the Kingdom of
Naples. Rather than seek confrontation and civil war, Garibaldi yielded. A plebiscite was held and both the Papal States and the Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies agree to join Piedmont. The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in March 1861 with Victor Emmanuel II (1861-1878) as king.
5. The Austrian territory of Venetia became part of Italy as a result of the prudent association of Italy with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.
Although the Italians lost on the battlefield, the Prussian peace required Austria to hand over Venetia to Italy.
6. As war between France and Prussia seemed immanent in 1870, France withdrew its protective troops from Rome. Defenseless, the pope
permitted Rome to be annexed in September 1870 in return for making it the new capital of united Italy.
Questions:
1. Why would France be willing to help Piedmont against Austria?
2. For Europe, what was the consequence of the formation of Italy?
The Unification of Italy
 Europe 1848-1914
 Second Napoleonic Empire
Louis Napoleon, 1852-1870
Economic growth
Active foreign policy – Russia and China
 Failure in Mexico
 Unification of Italy
Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia
Count Camillo di Cavour, prime minister
Alliance with France in anticipation of war with Austria
War with Austria, 1859
 Austria driven out of Lombardy
 France makes separate peace
The Unification of German Empire
1. In 1834 the Zollverein was established under the leadership of Prussia to stimulate trade by reducing tariffs and to increase revenues for member
states. By 1853 all the German states but Austria had joined the customs union. Thus, a united economic Germany minus Austria was created.
2. Schleswig and Holstein were inhabited by Germans and Danes. Since the settlement of 1815, Holstein had been part of the German
Confederation. Both states were under the control of the king of Denmark who in 1864 sought to annex them. To thwart this, Prussia invited
Austria to defend the territories against Denmark. The war was brief and Denmark had to renounce all claims. Prussia and Austria jointly were to
administer the two territories. In this manner Austria played into Prussia's hands as inevitably the two would quarrel. When this happened it would
give Prussia a chance to remove Austria from German affairs and the German Confederation. The predictable war broke out in 1866 and lasted
only seven weeks, culminating in the battle at Koneggratz and a Prussian victory. In the peace, Austria agreed to give up Schleswig and Holstein,
surrender Venetia to Prussia's ally Italy, and withdraw from German affairs.
3. Prussia created the North German Confederation by incorporating all German states north of the Main River. The southern German Catholic
states that had allied with Austria during the war were forced to agree to military alliances. In addition, Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, and the free city of
Frankfurt were annexed because they had sided with Austria during the conflict.
4. To bring the final states into a German union, Otto von Bismarck, chancellor of the new North German Confederation, sought a confrontation with
France. He believed that exploitation of French nationalism would bring the desired result. Thus, he took advantage of the tempest over the
Prussian nomination of a Hohenzollern to sit on the vacant Spanish throne. War broke out in July 1870 culminating in the defeat of the French in
September at the battle of Sedan.
Following the loss, which included the capture of Napoleon III, the French overthrew the monarchy and
proclaimed a republic. Nevertheless, the French vowed to fight on with the result that Paris was besieged. After five months, in January, 1871, the
city surrendered. In the peace that followed France had to surrender to Prussia the border territories of Alsace and Lorraine.
5. Even before the war ended, the south German states agreed to join the North German Confederation. On January 18, 1871, William I (18711888) was proclaimed the emperor of a united German Empire.
Questions:
1. What drove Prussia to create a united Germany?
2. Why was it necessary for Prussia to seek a war with Austria and France in order to create a united German state?
The Unification of the German Empire
Northern Italy, except Venetia, joins Sardinia
Nice and Savoy given to France
 Guiseppe Garibaldi
Conquers southern Italy, swears loyalty to the king
 Kingdom of Italy proclaimed, 1861
 Acquisition of Venetia and Rome
 Unification of Germany
 Otto von Bismarck, Realpolitik
War against Denmark, 1864
War against Austria, 1866
North German Confederation
Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871
 Acquisition of Alsace and Lorraine
Union of north and south Germany
The United States and Canada in the Nineteenth Century
1. The 1783 victory of the Americans in the War for Independence brought them by way of treaty the lands east of the Mississippi River to the
Appalachian Mountains; The American claim to the territory was enhanced by Revolutionary victories in the Ohio River valley. In a separate 1783
treaty, Florida was returned to Spain by the British.
2. Under pressure from Napoleon, Spain ceded back to France in l8OO the vast Louisiana territory. Three years later, with Napoleon needing cash to
resume his war in Europe, France sold Louisiana for $15 million to the U.S. Explorations by Meriweather Lewis and William Clark in 1804-1805
established the American claim to the northwestern territory. Acting as if the Louisiana Purchase included Florida, the United States added a slice
of West Florida to the state of Louisiana upon its admission in 1812 and another slice to the Mississippi territory. In the Adams-Onis Treaty of
1819, Spain ceded East Florida to the United States and renounced its claim to West Florida.
3. In 1836 rebellious Texans defeated President/General Santa Anna of Mexico at San Jacinto in southeast Texas and gained their independence.
Texas remained an independent nation until 1845 when it was admitted as a state to the United States. In part, the admission of Texas was a cause
of the Mexican-American War (1846-48). The conclusion of the war with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought to the United States California,
Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. In addition, the U.S. acquisition of Texas was recognized.
4. Oregon territory was claimed by Russia, Spain, Britain, and the new United States. Spain and Russia dropped their claim while the United States
and Britain sparred over the jointly occupied area. In the 1830s and 1840 Americans increasingly moved into the territory and it became an issue in
the 1844 election. In 1849 the United States and Britain agreed to demarcation at the forty-ninth parallel.
5. In 1837 and 1838 two separate rebellions broke out in Canada as colonists sought self-rule. As a result of a report to Queen Victoria in 1840,
Parliament in the Act of Union combined Lower and Upper Canada into the new United Province of Canada. Self-government, however, was not
granted. Due to sectional differences, the union was not a happy one. In 1867 Parliament passed the British North American Act in which Upper
Canada became the province of Ontario and Lower Canada became Quebec. These provinces were united with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
In the Pacific west, the colonies of Vancouver Island (1849) and British Columbia (1858) were created. In 1870 the province of Manitoba was added
to Canada and the following year British Columbia was included when the government agree to build the Canadian Pacific Railroad to the link the
new province with the east. Prince Edward Island joined Canada in 1873. The Hudson's Bay Company lands became the provinces of Alberta and
Saskatchewan in 1905. In 1912 other parts of the Company's lands were added to Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba. Newfoundland finally became a
province in 1948.
Questions:
1. What claims allowed the United States to expand?
2. How was Canada created?
The United States and Canada in the Nineteenth Century
 United States
 Sectional differences
 Some southern politicians argued the union could be
dissolved, states created the union
 Northern politicians argued the American people created
the union
 Struggle over tariffs and slavery
 Abraham Lincoln
 Civil War, 1861-1865
 Austria-Hungary
 Ethnic unrest after 1848
 Ausgleich, 1867, Dual Monarchy
 Russia
Multiethnic empire
Russification of minority groups
Eager to gain warm-water ports through the Balkans
Creation of Bulgarian state by Treaty of San Stefano,
1877
 Congress of Berlin, 1878
 Confirms independence of Balkan states, reduces
size of Bulgaria, Austria to administer Bosnia and
Herzgovina
 Political Developments to 1914
 Development of more democratic institutions in Britain
 Parliament Act
 Women use marches and violence to demand political
rights
 France Proclaims the Third Republic
 Figurehead president
 Legislation to protect workers
 Active participation of unions in the political process
 Syndicalism
 Mass corruption in Italian politics
 Germany
 Federation of 25 states
 Universal male suffrage for the Reichstag
 Chancellor answerable to the emperor
 Austro-Hungarian Empire had limited political changes
 Russia
 Mensheviks and Bolsheviks
 1905 Revolt
Spread of Industrialization
The Spread of Industry by 1850
1. Hindering industrial growth in Europe were the wars between 1790 and 1815 that played havoc with the economies. After the conflicts, Europeans
were unwilling to make the investments necessary for the newest machinery. Instead, businessmen opted to use older, less productive machines.
2. In France, as well as the rest of Europe, the wars had resulted in the interruption of the supply of cotton due to the British blockade. Thus, the wool
industry exploded. It was concentrated in France, Belgium, and northern Germany. Since manual labor was cheap, mechanization was slow.
Moreover, the consequence of the inundation of British cotton goods was production of specialty goods not made in England. As a result,
mechanization in France first occurred in the silk industry and then in cotton specialties.
3. The three centers of industrialization on the Continent were Belgium, France, and the German states. In Belgium, where there was an abundance
of cheap coal and scarce water power, the steam engine became a source of power to run the textile factories. France was a distant second to
Britain in cotton manufacturing and was dependent upon less efficient machines and labor. Moreover, manufacturing was dispersed throughout
France. Regardless, early industrialization in Belgium and France provided the conduit through which mechanics could spread their knowledge on
the Continent.
4. Unlike Britain which built its industrialization upon cotton manufacturing, the Continent witnessed heavy industry leading the way with its reliance
upon plentiful coal and iron reserves. Nevertheless, Germany, which failed to utilize the tremendous coal reserves it had in the Ruhr, built an iron
industry on the old method of burning wood for the charcoal.
5. In banking, the Belgian banks of Societe General and Banque de Belgique developed large capital resources by accepting deposits from many
depositors and then investing it in large scale projects such as railroads, mining, and heavy industry. This proved particularly important in developing
the Belgian coal industry that was to become the largest on the continent in the 1840s. The Credit Mobilier in France, the Darnstadt Bank in
Germany, and the Kreditanstalt in Austria served the same purposes.
6. Whereas Britain had large population concentrations in the cities (see Acetate 69), such migration and growth were not evident on the Continent.
In France, by 1851 Paris had a population of one million and only Lyons and Marseilles approached 200,000. In Germany and Austria only five
cities had more than 100,000 inhabitants. The most heavily industrialized country in Europe, Belgium, still had almost fifty percent of its male workers
involved in agriculture.
Questions:
1. What was the uniqueness of European industrialization?
2. In terms of urban growth, how was the industrialization of continental Europe different from that of Britain? What was the consequence of this?
The Spread of Industry by 1850
 Spread of Industrialization
 Use of steam power
George Stephenson’s Rocket, 1830
Robert Fulton’s Clermont, 1807
 Role of government in industrialization
Tariffs, subsidies, capital investment
Count Serge Witte or Russia
Limitations by lack of capital and natural resources
 New Industries
 Rise of Big Business
 Britain adopts free trade, other nations follow
 Small and medium size firms compete for business
 Appearance of monopolies in 1870s
 Social Classes
 Population growth
 Overcrowded industrial cities
 Economic classes
Upper, middle, lower
Urban worker
 Skilled workers
 Semiskilled workers
 Unskilled workers
 Differences in class structure of North and South America
 Women and the Family
 New employment opportunities
 Generally excluded from skilled and better paying jobs
 Assumption of other sources of income, wages stay low
 Rural area women drawn to the city
 Consequences of the lack of parental supervision
 Part-time work after marriage
 Social Reforms
 Initiate reforms to forestall revolutions
 Political parties campaign on reform issues
Use the power of the state to aid underprivileged
 Active trade unions
 Cultural and Intellectual Trends
 The Romantic Movement
Emotional responses in literature, challenge basic
attitudes toward society
Nature a powerful theme
Use of the supernatural
Violent motions in art
Heroic symphonies
 Materialism
Belief matter the causal agent in the universe, to the
exclusion of spiritual things
 Positivism applies scientific method to all academic
disciplines
Auguste Comte
 Realism
 Depiction of life as it really is
 Impressionist painters, impact of light and color
 Novelist bring society to life
 “Survival of the Fittest”
 Charles Darwin
 Social Darwinism
 Culture in America
 Life of pioneer and farmer
 Muckrakers
 Transcendentalism
 Individual experience
 Latin America stuck to European models