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Review 3 1400 - 1750 The Age of Exploration Led by Portugal and Spain 1400-1750 The Ultimate Reasons to Explore…. The Three G’s (political) Glory (economic) Gold (religious) God The conquistadors, or the conquerors emerge for all three reasons. Portuguese Explorations: Trading Empire Vasco da Gama • In 1497 led four ships on an expedition to India. • First to sail around Africa and reach India Sailed from Portugal to Calicut, India Spanish Explorations Land Based Empire Spain : Land Based Empire Why? Spain and Portugal had similar motives and identical ships and weapons What happened? Isolation of the Americans made the motives different American lands much were easier to dominate than Asian and African lands Resorted to conquest and plunger rather than trade Christopher Columbus: • Born in Genoa, Italy • In 1492, Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand financed an expedition for Columbus to find a new route to India heading west. • Their reason: the “Three G’s” • Carried a letter to the Grand Khan (Chinese emperor) First Circumnavigator of the Globe Ferdinand Magellan • Sponsored by Spain in 1519, the Portuguese explorer set out to find a western route to India • Charted a narrow waterway named Strait of Magellan which enabled sailors to cross the Pacific Ocean. • 1521 died in the Philippines • 18 sailors complete the mission back to Spain English Explorers John Cabot - 1497 • Sent by King Henry VII • His discovery gives England the claim to most of Eastern North America! Financed by the Dutch The Eve of In 1492 anthropologists Destruction estimate there were about 75 million Native Americans in the Western Hemisphere; 25 million in Mexico By 1650 there are less than 10 million in the hemisphere; 1 million in Mexico! What happened? The history of Native People in the Latin America… The picture “says” it all! What do you see? Reasons for Victory… 1. Superior military technologies: armor, steel swords, fire arms, cannons 2. Division & Discontent among the Indians. 3. Disease brought by the Europeans 4. Spanish imposed forced labor and religious conversion to control their empire Cortes Treated as a God… Arrived in 1519 with 11 ships, 500+ men and a few cannons Taught to be the arrival of the great god Quetzalcoatl 8 months of peace Cortes formed an alliance with those enslaved tribes who hate their Aztec It took two years for Cortes to conqueror the empire. Conquest of Peru In 1531, Pizarro sailed from Panama city with about 180 men. The Spaniards find the Inca’s trying to recover from civil war. Had he come early he would have met a united empire. Pizzaro uses the Inca’s own roads to get to them. They have 14,000 miles of road! COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE… WHAT IS IT? Land Claims in the Americas About 1750 Spanish Colonial Society In Spanish America, the mix of diverse people gave rise to a new very strict class system: 1. Peninsulares, people born in Spain, were at the top of society. 2. Creoles, American-born descendents of Spanish settlers, were next. 3. Mestizos were people of Native American and European descent. 4. Mulattoes were people of African and European descent. How were the French and English colonies both similar to and different from those of Spain and Portugal? English favored removal of Native Americans rather than assimilation French preferred a policy of conversion of native peoples to Christianity. Similarities All colonizers met native peoples with a mixture of violence and diplomacy. African slaves were important in much of the Americas. Differences Rather than controlling American expansion through their central governments, both nations acted through private corporations and individual proprietors. colonized with larger percentages of Europeans SLAVERY What are the various theories as to why African slave labor was so widely used in the Americas? Several/ schools of thought. A once popular theory held that Africans were more resistant to disease, as well as better suited to heavy work in tropical climates. Another held that use of Africans was motivated primarily by prejudice. Eric Williams has refuted that particular theory with his famous quote that “Slavery was not born of racism: rather, racism was the consequence of slavery.” Another assertion was that slaves were cheap. They were not, but since white Europeans’ indentures were relatively brief, the high cost of slaves could be minimized over a longer period of time. Rising sugar prices also meant that sugar growers could afford more expensive African slaves. started The Atlantic Slave Trade in the 1500s to fill the need for labor in Spain’s American empire. Europeans relied on European traders and African tribes to seize captives in the interior and bring them to coastal trade posts and fortresses. Triangular Trade Grows The Atlantic slave trade formed one part of a three-legged trade network know as the triangular trade. Original Triangle Trade Route: Slaves, Sugar & Rum Rum Sugar Slaves Destinations of Enslaved Africans, 1500–1870 Greatest sugar producer in 1600 – Brazil Greatest sugar producer in 18th century – Saint Domingue (Haiti) How did the Saharan slave trade differ from the Atlantic slave trade? While the number of enslaved Africans in the Saharan trade was smaller than in Atlantic trade, it was still substantial. Indigenous Muslim states controlled both sides of the Saharan trade, although most of the slaves were nonMuslim African captives. Islamic law prohibited the enslavement of Muslims, but some where still enslaved Slaves served different purposes in Muslim societies than in the Americas: most were servants; others performed state and military functions. The Atlantic slave trade was heavily male; the Saharan slave trade heavily female. Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade By the 1800s, an estimated 11 million enslaved Africans had reached the Americas. Another 2 million probably died during the Middle Passage In West Africa, the loss of countless numbers of young women and men resulted in some small states disappearing forever. Slave Collar So a runaway could be heard! The Economic Systems of Mercantilism & Capitalism Appear Mercantilism comprised the policies of European states to promote overseas trade and defend national interests. Protect trade and accumulate precious metals English Navigation Acts –confine ships to English ships and cargoes Capitalism (means of production are privately owned) involving the management of large financial resources through banks, stock exchanges, and trading companies. Mercantilist policies that supported capitalism included chartered companies, tariffs, and trade laws. The largest capitalist overseas investments were in the sugar plantations of the Caribbean. Mercantilism New Economic System Governmental control was exercised over domestic industry and all trade Believed that national strength is secured by more exports than imports All resources were for the benefit of the mother country Real wealth was measured in the amount of gold and silver in the national treasury The Reformation, 1350-1600: Europe Divides Over Religion The Protestant Reformation • During the 1500s reformers called for changed that would unleash forces that would shatter Christian unity. • The movement is known as the Protestant Reformation. • wants change or protests the practices of the Catholic Church.” Why? Mainly Pope Leo X Authorized the selling of Indulgences (forgiveness of punishment) Prayer, pilgrimage, donation to church Royal Centralization 1500-1750 Royal power in Europe Limited the power of the church and subordinated the church to state Establish stronger national institutions, made uniform laws, common national languages and tore down defensive fortification of nobles and independent cities Spain Philip II used inquisition to suppress suspected protestants France Louis XIII and XIV suppressed Protestantism • Founded by Henry VIII Church of • Left Catholic Church Anglican – No heir to throne – Couldn’t get a divorce Declared the “Act of Supremacy” 1536 1. Made himself head of Church, no pope 2. Claimed all church lands for the throne 3. Allowed divorce in special circumstances 4. Church of England controlled its own finances England Church 3 The Teachings of Martin Luther German monk started the Protestant Reformation Rejected Pope’s authority Rejected selling of indulgences • Salvation is achieved through faith alone. • The Bible is the sole source of religious truth. • All Christians have equal access to God through faith and the Bible. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Salvation through faith alone Bible as only source God decides fate from conception; there is an elect or chosen: Predestination Why? People are sinful by nature, imperfect people can not choose God, God must choose! Stressed hard work, discipline, honesty, and morality Banned swearing, dancing, provocative dress, fighting Also no drinking or gambling Like Luther wanted Christian education for boys and girls Calvinist Beliefs 4 Widespread Persecution 1. In some places, Jews were forced to live in ghettos 2. expelled from Christian lands and their books and synagogues were burned. 3. After Jews rejected his Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther wrote several anti-Semitic articles. Hitler later used Luther as justification for the Holocaust Map of Jewish expulsions and resettlement areas in Europe. 1100-1500. Reform Brings Witch Hunts…. Religion at the time Europeans were shaped by a mixture of Christian and folk traditions (supernatural and magical causes) Causes Disasters such as crop failures could be construed as punishment for sin or as due to evil magic. a violent reaction to the social tensions, rural poverty and environmental strains. authorities tried over a hundred thousand people, three fourths of them women, for practicing witchcraft. How will the Church Respond? The Catholic Counter-Reformation Main Goals: 1. To eliminate church abuses 2. Clarify its teachings 3. Reestablish Pope’s authority 4. Stop the loss of any more believers from the Catholic Church Counter Punch to the Protestants The Catholic Counter-Reformation To accomplish these goals, he: 1.Strengthened the Inquisition 2.Called the Council of Trent to establish the direction that reform should focus on. 3.Established the Jesuits, to combat heresy and spread the Catholic faith. Pope Paul III Council of Trent Reforms 1545-1563 The Council affirmed the following beliefs: • • • • Salvation through faith & goods works Only the Church could explain the Bible Tradition is a source of religious truth, not only the Bible Pope is the highest and final authority on earth The Inquisition • The Inquisition, church court tried heretic – old news • censored all Protestant texts • Destroyed and/or burned all books of the reformers • Some heretics burned at the stake Effects of the Reformation 1. End of all religious unity in Europe 2. Founding of many new religious faiths 3. Strengthening of monarchs over church authority in some areas of Europe 4. Wide-spread literacy and parochial schools 5. Middle class continues to gain power through their Protestant virtues 6. Increased hatred for the Jews or anti-semitism increases across Europe 7. Legacy of wonderful cultural creations Islam Penetrates Europe The Ottoman Empire Ottoman and Safavid Empires 1453–1629 5 The End of the Byzantine Empire The Byzantine empire drew to a close in 1453 when forces from the Muslim Ottoman Empire surrounded and conquered Constantinople. renamed Istanbul and became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Suleiman Ottoman Empire’s Golden Age •“Suleiman the Magnificent” to Westerners •“The Lawgiver” to his own people •Reading: “Suleiman, Warrior and Man of Justice” The Ottoman Empire and Suleiman GOVERNMENT Suleiman had absolute power. Ottoman law was based on Sharia. The Ottomans recruited government and military officers from conquered people. SOCIETY Society was divided into four classes, with “men of the pen” and “men of the sword” at the top. Non-Muslims were organized into millets, or religious communities. ARTS Poets produced works in the Turkish language. Painters produced detailed miniatures and illuminated manuscripts. The royal architect Sinan designed magnificent mosques and palaces. Compare and contrast the two important cities, Istanbul and Isfahan, in terms of their culture and society. Cities Istanbul was a great seaport; Isfahan was built well inland. Both cities were designed for walking. Wheeled vehicles were rare in Istanbul and nonexistent in Isfahan, as Isfahan was in an area dominated by camel transport. Women’s roles were similar—and restricted—in both Istanbul and Isfahan. Women were seldom seen in public and had special quarters in the home, called anderun in Iran and harem in Istanbul. Nevertheless, women were accepted in business and trade, although within certain well-defined and accepted boundaries. Cosmopolitan or not Isfahan, the later capital of the Iranian empire, was located geographically in the middle of the empire and was not very diverse socially or culturally. Istanbul, on the other hand, was a geographic crossroads and reflected the diversity of its many different peoples. What was the primary feature that distinguished the Mughal Empire from the Ottomans and Safavids? India (Mughal) Militarily (Mughal) was first and foremost a Hindu land, although controlled by a Muslim minority. Because India was geographically far from the Islamic homelands, distance lessened Muslim dominance and power. Centuries of separation and seclusion had consolidated Hindu culture, which did not easily adapt to Islam. The Mughals—their name taken from the Persian word for Mongol—also patterned many of their institutions after their Mongol forebears. were more concerned with the sea than the Ottomans or Safavids, and had closer links to the vast Indian Ocean and Southeast Asian trade network. had others fight most of their sea battles for them Religion Differences between Muslim and Hindu were the defining factor. The most successful of the Mughal emperors, Akbar, overcame those differences by marrying into a Hindu family, elimination of tax on nonMuslims and effecting a reconciliation between the two groups. The Mughal Empire (1526-1761) Illustration from a Mughal Manuscript A. Political Foundations The founder of the Mughal dynasty was Babur, who ruled from 1483 to 1530. Babur was not fully a Mongol: his mother was descended from Genghis Khan, but his father was descended from Timur. Akbar, r. 15561605 Akbar, whose 49 year reign laid the foundation of empire. Hinduism and Islam Clash and Blend Moscow Rises In Power 1. During the Mongol period, the princes of Moscow steadily increased their power. 2. The Russian Orthodox moves to Moscow eventually the seat of power is moved there. Ivan the Great: First Tsar • Ivan III, refused to pay Mongol tribute • Won many battles and recovered lost territory • Suppressed boyar powers • claimed the leadership of the Eastern Orthodox Empire • Took the title czar (tsar) the Russian word for Caesar Ivan IV aka Ivan the Terrible! • Grandson of Ivan the Great • Ruled from 1547-1584 Why Terrible? • he resorted to torture, exile, and execution to punish those who plotted against him • Significantly expanded Russia’s territory and Russia prospered! His Family…. Tragic, read on… • In 1582 his daughter-in-law Elena appeared immodestly dressed and Ivan censured her. • His son Ivan Ivanovich rose to defend his wife, whereupon the tsar killed his son, his only possible respectable heir. • This left as heir Ivan’s feebleminded son Fyodor (reigned 1584-1598), the last Ryurikid ruler in a line that extended back seven centuries. • Another son, Dmitry, was considered illegitimate because his mother was Ivan's seventh wife (the church only permitted three marriages, and recognized none of Ivan’s later wives). • Dmitry either killed himself playing with a knife or was murdered in 1591 Russian Monarchy Medieval Russia • group of clergy, nobles and townsmen chose a new czar • Romanov dynasty established with Romanov Crown Mikhail Romanov • lasts until 1917 with the Communist Revolution. Mikhail Romanov Russia Before Peter Look at the facts: • • • • 10 million people, 8.5 serfs Boyars (landowning nobles) control the court and government Very Anti-Western European culture Majority of population are uneducated The Westernization of Russia • Goals – To modernize, westernize Russia – Establish absolute monarchy • Journeyed to Western Europe to learn… – – – – Anatomy Dentistry Carpenter in shipyard Government structure of English Parliament • Brought Experts to Russia – Technical experts, teachers, soldiers, and nobles Peter the Great • Built a new capital at St. Petersburg and committed to a policy of westernization in Russia. •To impose his will, Peter became the most autocratic of Europe’s absolute monarchs. • No to political liberalization •Brought Russian Orthodox Church under his control and increased the burden of taxes and labor on the serfs “Great Northern War” broke Swedish control over the Baltic and established direct contact between Russia and Europe Peter the Great’s Major Changes Requires European Dress & No Beards! Took control of church Westernization of Russia Made the boyars serve in the gov’t Modernized army Adopts Mercantilism Builds St. Petersburg Brought in Europe’s Technology and Craftsman Catherine the Great r. 1762-1796 • Born in 1729 in Germany today modern day Poland • Gains the throne by “stealing it” (maybe) from her murdered husband, Peter III! •began state-sponsored education for boys and girls. • embraced and encouraged Western ideas and culture. • granted special privileges to the boyars. • Allows serfdom to continue • repressed peasant rebellions. •Built the world’s largest land empire Catherine’s Palace Expansion of Russia, 1689-1796 Peter the Great: • created the largest standing army in Europe • On land won from Sweden, Peter built a magnificent new capital city, St. Petersburg. Catherine the Great: 1. gained a warm-water port on the Black Sea 2. agreed to partition Poland and gained the eastern portion. Romanov Dynasty Heritage Last Romanov Czar Murdered w/ family in 1917 Expansion of Russia, 1689 – 1796 Land Empires V. Sea Based Empires Land empires were at a disadvantage in competition with the sea-based commercial empires of Europe more despite the fact that they developed the largest economic and administrative systems in the world. Much more expensive to defend and had fewer choices with regard to direction for possible expansion Qing China What did the Qing government do to stimulate the economy? Qing emperors repaired roads and waterworks, lowered taxes, rents, and interest rates, and resettled people into areas depopulated by earlier peasant revolts. Foreign threats and trade The Qing eliminated potential external military threats, making further recovery possible. This new territorial control encouraged the reopening of overland trade routes, which created an influx of resources and knowledge, reinforcing Qing recovery. The long-term effectiveness of this recovery was due to the Qing’s ability to incorporate and adapt the ideas and technologies of far-flung areas. Emperor Kangxi Emperor Kangxi r. 1662-1722 Took control over his government in 1669 at age 16 by executing his chief regent Intellectual prodigy and a successful military commander who expanded his territory and gave it a high degree of stability Reign of 61 years makes him the longest reigning Emperor of China Cultural diffusion Examples of Qing adaptation include the Mongol system of political organization; the Tibetan practice of religious legitimization for rulers; Korean and Chinese agricultural policies; and European mapping and technology. Taught by the Jesuits Describe the trade relationship between Europe and China in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Trade Trade increased significantly by the end of the sixteenth century, particularly in Chinese goods such as tea, silk, and porcelain. The Europeans provided transport in their growing shipping fleets. Trade restrictions The desire to protect the agricultural sector, as well as concern about smuggling and piracy, led the Qing to restrict and regulate foreign involvement in trade. This regulation extended from limiting camel caravans to restricting Europeans to Canton. Describe the trade relationship between Europe and China in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. European frustrations Europeans, eyeing huge potential Chinese markets, were unable to appeal to Chinese consumers with any known product, and the consequent trade imbalances angered them. The corrupt and inefficient British East India Company only made matters worse. George Macartney’s (1793-1794) mission to China is an example of British attempts to open a more advantageous trade with China. Was a big failure, as were similar diplomatic embassies sent by the Dutch, French, Russians Order and Unity Restored Under the Tokugawas,1603-1868 • • • The Tokugawa shogunate was the longest period of uninterrupted peace Japan ever enjoyed. The brilliant and ruthless administration of the Tokugawa military administration combined with the rigid seclusion of the country allowed for the growth of Japanese culture in an unprecedented way. Tokugawa Japan practiced a form of government referred to as “controlled decentralization.” What was the ultimate result of this form of government for the Tokugawa Shogunate? Government Japanese emperors had no political power and that they remained in virtual exile The shoguns wielded most of the power and lived at Edo, the new capital. The Tokugawa system of regional lords, who resided part of the time at Edo, required wellmaintained roads, which in turn helped develop new trade and manufacturing centers. “Forty-seven Ronin” incident 1702 Showed basic flaw in the Shogunal government Forced the military, to obey the civil law in the interests of building a centralized, standardized system of law (transformed from a military to a civil society) Discuss the impact of the Jesuits in Europe, China, and Japan from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. The mission of the Jesuits was to produce converts to Catholicism. They were successful to a degree, particularly among the elite of the Ming. Tolerated Confucian ancestor worship to gain converts Cultural Diffusion Also brought European ideas and technology to Asia—for instance, mapmaking and metallurgy (for cannon). Transferred to Europe the ideas of inoculation against smallpox Japan Came in late 1500s and had limited success in converting regional lords, but had greater success in converting farmers of Southern and Eastern Japan Rural rebellion in the 1630s was blamed on Christians which led to persecutions, ban on Christianity, and closing on Japan in 1649 Age of Reason 1600s-1800s Revolution and Reason The Scientific Revolution convinced many Europeans of the power of human reason. Enlightenment philosophers admired scientists’ use of reason to understand the natural world. Philosophers began ask, “ Why not use reason to discover the natural laws (laws that governed) of human nature?” Many philosophers began to believe that if people used reason to find laws that governed the physical world (science)… then answers to society’s problems could also be found. Hobbes Explores Government Thomas Hobbes used the idea of natural law to argue that absolute monarchy was the best form of government, why? Hobbes Explores Government People are naturally cruel, greedy, and selfish. Without it chaos would occur People formed a social contract, an agreement to give up their freedom and live obediently under a ruler who would protect them Key Focus: Support for Monarchs and the social contract John Locke Offers: A radical view Locke believed people were inherently good and that government was based on a social contract too BUT… Unlike Hobbes he believed that people were governed by consent based on natural rights or laws Rights to life, liberty and property Fuel for revolution Locke believed people created government to protect natural rights, if a government failed in this duty, people had the right to overthrow the government! This idea influenced American colonists including Thomas Jefferson in the Declaration of Independence Locke’s writings helped to provided the “fuel” for the American Revolution Other philosophers Voltaire – most important freedom of speech Montesquieu – focused on separation of checks and balances Rousseau – community is more important than the individual Government by general will ( majority) Direct democracy New Economic Thinking rejected mercantilism in favor of a policy called laissez faire or allowing businesses to run with little or no government interference. In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith (1776) argued that the laissez-faire or free market should be allowed to regulate business activity. Smith’s Invisible Hand Adam Smith referred to “an invisible hand,” which kept the economy in check In order for the “invisible hand” to work, there can be no external laws or rules interrupt the natural economic cycle of boom and bust. Smith’s Invisible Hand Smith argued that a free, unregulated economic competition or laissez-faire brings: 1.Maximum profits 2.Quality products 3.Creative innovation 4.Competitive prices The Challenge to Absolutism: American Revolution French Revolution Napoleon