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European Nationalism 1800-1900 1789 Europe 1810 Map 1815 Map Ideology • • • • • • Conservative/Reactionary Liberal/Radical Moderate Nationalism Socialism Feminism The Congress of Vienna Negotiators • • • • Lord Castlereagh of Great Britain Czar Alexander I of Russia Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand of France Metternich • Distrusted democracy and political change - Restore order and stability • Dominated the congress, wanted to restore the balance of power Goals for Other Decision Makers • Make sure France could not rise again to such power • Put down revolution wherever it might appear • Remove traces of French Revolution and Napoleon’s rule Redrawing the Map National borders • Congress changed many borders • Wanted to strengthen nations surrounding France New Countries • Union of the Dutch Republic and the Austrian Netherlands as the Kingdom of the Netherlands • Austria and 38 German states in German Confederation Process France’s loss • Countries that aided France lost territory • Was not allowed to keep any conquered territory • Countries that fought France gained territory • Boundaries back to 1792 • Forced to pay indemnity, or compensation for damages Restoring Monarchies • Napoleon had eliminated royal control in many countries. • Members of the old Bourbon royal family were returned to the thrones of Spain and Sicily. • Monarchies were restored in Portugal and Sardinia. Metternich’s Influence • His reactionary attitudes influenced politics and society. • Wanting a return to absolute monarchy, he despised constitutions, voting rights, and freedom of religion and the press. • Liberal ideas were suppressed in Austria, the German states, and northern Italy. Events/Ideas to Remember • End of Napoleon/Napoleonic Europe • Congress of Vienna – Metternich • Conservatism vs. Liberalism • Balance of Power – Key Countries: GB, Ottoman Empire, France, Piedmont-Sardinia . . . . and soon, Russia 1848 Revolutions • A universal upheaval that, with the exceptions of Russia and England, affected the entire continent • France—February 1848 – Revolution provoked by the government’s refusal to grant voting rights to people below the wealthier classes – Violence and rioting in the streets of Paris force the abdication of Louis Philippe • A largely conservative Constituent Assembly elected by universal male suffrage – Conflict between the government(liberals) and Parisian radicals / socialists Revolutions of 1848--France • • • Working class men of the workshops attacked the Constituent Assembly, declared its dissolution, and established yet another provisional government – Assembly quickly restored by the National Guard militia – Workshops closed, class war ensues “June Days” of 1848 – Three days of violence and bloodshed consume Paris Emergence of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte 1848 Revolutions Elsewhere • Austrian Empire in 1848 – Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, parts of Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, Italy • Vienna’ s authority and political leadership • The March Days of 1848 – Inspired by the February events in France, revolution swept through the Austrian empire and through all Italy and Germany • Metternich forced to step down – Austria grants Hungary autonomy as war rages in Italy and Germany prepared for unification • Demands for liberal concessions and national freedom 1848 Revolutions Elsewhere • • The German States – German liberals longed for a unified German state under a constitution – 30+ states of the German Confederation were the primary obstacle to unification • Two largest states were the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Prussia • Establishment of the Zollverein set the tone for greater union Situation in Berlin – Prussian liberals called for reform by petitioning King Frederick William IV in 1848 • Frederick agreed to grant Prussians a constitution and to merge Prussia into a German state – Question of how democratic and socialist the new government should be – Middle class conservatives able to convince Frederick (Money) 1848 Revolutions Elsewhere • The National Assembly at Frankfurt – Represented the liberal and nationalist aspirations of many Germans but, unlike the French National Assembly of 1789, had no real political authority, nor was it like many of the social revolutionaries occurring elsewhere on the continent • Its members consisted mostly of professional people who feared the working classes as much as or more than they feared the political powers of kings and Prussian aristocrats – Questions of territory • What constitutes “Germany”? • ‘Great Germans’ versus ‘Little Germans’ – Reliance on Austrian and Prussian armies Crimean War Begins • Key Events: 1853-54 – Russia defeated Turkish fleet (fall 1853) – Russia occupies Ottoman territories of Moldavia and Wallachia Key Events • Britain, France, Sardinia (Allies) declare war on Russia • Austria neutral (but may enter war with Allies) Peace • 1856: Treaty of Paris – Allies: Victory Treaty of Paris 1856 – Made Black Sea neutral territory • No more warships or forts allowed – Reduced Russian influence in region – Russian claim to protectorship in Palestine was rejected. Russia retreats from Holy Land. – Russia loses influence over Serbia Characteristics of the Crimean War • • • • First well publicized war Railroads and telegraph to aid war effort Photographed Battlefield nurses, ambulances Florence Nightingale • Divine calling • Criticized Victorian ideal of an educated, but helpless, woman • Created a profession out of a un-respected occupation – Nurses were typically cooks and even prostitutes who followed armies – No training Italian Unification Risorgimento • "Resurgence” • Political and social protest • Active between 1815 and Unification in 1860 Obstacles to Italian Unity • Historically, battleground for foreign and local princes – France (1494 – Charles VII) – Austria (Peace of Utrecht 1713) – Napoleon (1799-1815) • Frequent warfare emphasized local allegiances • Age of Napoleon, romanticism create desire for national unity and security against foreigners • But . . . Congress of Vienna – Gives Austria N. Italy – French prince given Napoli and Sicily Secret Societies • Carbonari formed about 1820 – Patriotic and liberal – Key figures in early years of nationalism • Young Italy: “One Italy, free and independent” – Organized by Mazzini • Organization – Scattered cells – Initiation rituals – “Skulls” Key Figures • Count Emilio Cavour: “the brain of unification” – Mazzini: the “soul” • Garibaldi the "sword" Giuseppe Mazzini: Writer and politician. Believed revolution would lead to unification. 1830: member of Carbonari 1831: organized a new political society called Giovane Italia (Young Italy) No King. Italy must be a democratic republic. Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont • “Buffer state” • Industrialization by 1830 • But . . .Political instability • 1848 – 1st Italian War for Independence – Loss to Austria • Vittorio Emmanuel = King in 1850 • Liberal prime minister, Emilio Cavour • S-P enters Crimean War to gain status Count Emilio di Cavour •Hated the idea of a united Italy, but hated Austrian control more. •2nd Italian War for Independence - 1859: Cavour persuaded Napoleon III(Assassination attempt) to protect Sardinia “if” Austria were to attack - Nice and Savoy - Austria does attack - France declares war against Austria. - Austrians surrender to France. Napoleon allows Sardinia to annex Lombardy. 1859/1860: all northern states voted to join the Kingdom of Sardinia. After 1860, France controls only Rome (at the request of the Pope). Kingdom of the Two Sicilies • Kingdom of Naples and Kingdom of Sicily Giuseppe Garibaldi 1833: Joined Mazzini's “Young Italy” Fought for Sardinian independence in 1854. Fought in South America Wanted independence for the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. Accepted help from Cavour. Garibaldi’s Red Shirts • 1860: defeated the Bourbon king of Sicily Garibaldi’s Gift to Italy • “Dictator of Sicily” – Died in 1882 – Garibaldi wrote to Lincoln: "Posterity will call you the great emancipator, a more enviable title than any crown could be, and greater than any merely mundane treasure.” • Only Venetia and Rome remain independent Map of the 19th Century Unification of Italy Who Should Rule “Italy”? With the revolutionary climate of Europe, Italy should be a constitutional monarchy. Vittorio Emmanuel is the strongest ruler within Italy. Benefits for Italy of the Austro-Prussian War 1866 • 3rd Italian war for Independence • Austria loses control of Venetia • Venetia annexed to Italy 1870 • Rome remained independent. • When France loses the FrancoPrussian war in 1870, France must withdraw troops (protecting the Pope in Rome) • Rome is ceded to Italy. The Right Leg in the Boot at Last!! Garibaldi: “If it won't go on Sire, try a little powder . . as in GUNpowder” Problems Facing Italy • Legacy of independent states • Regional differences – North: cultural heritage, economic prospects, more cities, educated – South: agricultural, rural, illiterate peasants • Italy vs Catholic Church – Church governs Vatican – Non-cooperation with new leaders of Italy German Unification The era of Bismarck Flag of Prussia. Otto von Bismarck, a prince of Prussia, led the movement to unite all Germans. Boundaries within Europe after the Congress of Vienna (1815), featuring a strong (and large) Prussia. The Austrian Empire is also large. Key People • Kaiser Wilhelm I • Otto von Bismarck – Iron Chancellor – “Blood and Iron” – Realpolitik Zollverein • 1830s: Trade union (Ended after unification) • Removed tariff barriers between German states • Austria purposefully excluded from beginning – Bismarck continued penalties against Austria Rivalry between Prussia and Austria • Rivals for German leadership • Much in common: – German language – Traditions, customs similar – But . . . Some differences – Prussia: mostly Protestant, militaristic, economically strong – Austria: Catholic, weaker leadership, weakened economy from fighting wars Bismarck as Chancellor • Bismarck Rap • Appointed by King Wilhelm I in 1862 – Not a Nationalist – First loyalty was to ruling family • Enlarged the army to support his plan – Support of Junkers, industrialists, landowners Bismarck’s Philosophy: Realpolitik • Politics based on practical (realistic) needs, not moral issues. • In other words, the ideals of the Enlightenment would be ignored. • Instead, Bismarck felt that people needed a strong government. • The government will use whatever economic or military methods necessary to increase its power. How Bismarck created Germany "By blood and Iron" OTTO VON BISMARCK used this phrase to describe the method by which a unified German state would be created. Compromise and discussion had failed. Bismarck knew that Germany could be created only through war . . . and with a strong leader. Bismarck orchestrated the unification of Germany through three carefully planned wars Denmark Austria France 1. War with Denmark -- 1864 Bismarck formed an alliance with Austria in 1864. The purpose was to declare war with Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein. Realpolitik Agreement: Prussia and Austria would take one province on victory. They called it “liberation” because these provinces were mostly occupied by German speaking people. Bismarck creates tension with Austria over S-H, which leads to war between Austria and Prussia in 1866 2. War with Austria -- 1866 • Bismarck knows Prussia can defeat Austria 1 on 1 – Give France Alsace/Lorraine Give Italy Venetia Give Russia aid vs. the Poles Realpolitik • “7-Weeks War” - After victory, Prussia “allows” Austria and 4 southern states to remain independent (assassination attempt) • Lenient toward Austria – Bismarck did not want to completely alienate Austria • But, Austria was permanently excluded from German affairs. • Northern States join Prussia 3. Franco-Prussian War – 1870 • Victories by Prussia worry Napoleon – Resources are getting stretched too thin – Willing to let France go to war to reclaim his authority – Bismarck - Keep France weak and isolate – Spanish Succession Ems Telegram • Manipulated by Bismarck- Realpolitik – Wants France to declare war against Prussia – Telegram suggests that the French insulted the Prussians (raises Prussian ire) – Also suggests the Prussians insulted the French (assuring retaliation, leading to war) “His Majesty the King (of Prussia) thereupon refused to receive the French envoy again and informed him through an adjutant that His Majesty has nothing further to say to the Ambassador. Battle of Sedan • Southern States join Prussia • Napoleon III surrendered, captured • French losses over 5x that of Prussia – Second Republic overthrown Treaty of Frankfurt • May 1871 • France lost Alsace and Lorraine and Strasburg • Napoleon III no match for Bismarck Birth of the German Empire • 1871: Southern states (except Austria) join the new German Empire • Prussian king becomes Kaiser of Germany (Hall of Mirrors) The German Empire • 1871 • Birth of the Second Reich • Two House legislature – Germany is an autocracy, ruled by Bismarck and the Emperor Coronation of Kaiser Wilhelm I Quotes by Bismarck • “The less people know about how sausages and laws are made, the better they'll sleep at night” • “The great questions of the day will not be settled by means of speeches and majority decisions but by iron and blood.” • “When you want to fool the world, tell the truth.” • “When you say you agree to a thing in principle you mean that you have not the slightest intention of carrying it out in practice.” • “If there is ever another war in Europe, it will come out of some damned silly thing in the Balkans” Bismarck’s Policies Against Socialists • Bismarck feared socialists would undermine loyalty of workers – possible revolution • Laws forbid socialist meetings, newspapers • Failed: workers unified in demands • Bismarck adapts – Entice workers away from Socialism by passing laws to protect them – Health insurance, pensions, accident insurance – Socialism never disappears Kulturkampf • • • • • • The Center Party – anti-nationalists Catholics must be loyal to state before church State can supervise church education State can approve appointment of priests Jesuits expelled from Germany Marriages must be performed by Civil – not religious – ceremony • Too rigid – Bismarck ends up making peace with The Church Kaiser Wilhelm II • 1888: succeeds his grandfather • 1890: asked Bismarck to resign • “There is only one master and that is I” • “Those who oppose me, I shall crush” • Resisted democratic reform, but continued social welfare programs • Continued support of German military • Imperialistic Bismarck Fired His legacy: 1891-1913 – coal output doubled 1888-1910 – iron output tripled 1914 – only G.B. produced more finished goods Eastern Europe (after 1850) Hapsburg Empire • Challenges – Conservative ruler in liberal age – Industrialization brings social problems, unrest, socialism • Emigration to US begins about 1870 – Mostly Jews and Slavs (non Germanspeaking) Hapsburgs: Ethnic Diversity Multinational – Less than 25% speak German – 50% belong to Slavic groups – Hungarians, Italians want independence – “Peoples! What does that mean? I know only subjects!” – Emperor Francis I (1830) Hapsburgs: Franz Joseph • Franz Joseph becomes emperor in 1848 (lasts until 1916) • After defeats against France, and Sardinia in 1859, reform begins – Constitution with legislature – Dominated by German speaking Austrians – Hungary in rebellion Compromise with Hungary • 1866 - Francis Deak (moderate from Hungary) proposes the Dual Monarchy • Austria and Hungary remain separate states – Each has constitution and parliament – Franz Joseph ruled both • Resentment by Slavic groups (especially Czechs) • Nationalism leads to Slavic unity, political and social unrest The Balkans Powder Keg – Many ethnic groups that want independence – Russia and Serbia – Britain and France want Ottoman land in the Middle East and N. Africa – Stage is set for a war in the Balkans • “If there is ever another war in Europe, it will come out of some damned silly thing in the Balkans” -- Bismarck 2nd Industrial Revolution • http://www.public.asu.edu/~warrenve/IR2.htm l Russian Expansion Nicholas I • 1825-1855 • Modernization – Limited power of landowners – Did not really change the system – Feared angering the nobles – Rigid social structure Alexander II • Defeated in Crimean War – Reveals lack of progress in Russia • Lack of railroads, inefficient bureaucracy Alexander II: Reforms • Reforms the result of liberal reaction after the war • Emancipation of serfs • Other Reform – Trial by jury – Eased censorship – Soldier term of service reduced from 25 years to 15 – Encouraged industry Revolutionary Currents • • • • Reform satisfied few Russians Peasants: freedom, but no land Liberals: want constitution, elected legislature Radicals: want socialism – Lived amongst peasants, preaching rebellion – Radicals turn to violence to get their message heard – People’s Will: plot to assassinate the Tsar • Tsar becomes more conservative • 1881: Assassination of Tsar Alexander II Alexander III • Reactionary – Revived harsh policies (Nicholas I) – Increased secret police, censorship – Exiled critics – Democracy is nothing but “lies of hollow people” Russification: One language, one church Russian Industrialization • 1890s: Focus on development • Foreign capital • Loans from France built Trans-Siberian Railroad • Increase in political and social problems • Radicals saw industrial workers as allies – Pamphlets preached revolutionary ideas of Karl Marx Nicholas II • 1894-1917 • Last Tsar • Ineffective War between Russia and Japan • 1904 • Nicholas II: “Fight for Faith, the Czar, the Fatherland” • Russia loses • Discontent erupts – Workers strike (better hours, wages) – Starts chain of events that lead to the Russian Revolutions of 1905, 1917 Russo-Japanese War Imperialism Origins & Causes • Aggressive Policies began in 1870's - Economic - Industrial Europe needed colonies to act as distributors - Foreign Investment offered a high risk, but high return - Additional source for raw materials Origins • Political - Strategic Colonies - Protection and support of Missionaries - France & England - Spreading Nationalism Origins • Social and Cultural - Population Growth - People needed/wanted to move - "Imperial Power Movement” - The future of European Power would be based on Imperial Holdings - Charles Darwin - Social Darwinism - National Pride in spreading your culture Africa - Exploration began in the 1850's - Sir Henry Stanley, Dr. David Livingston - Looking for the headwaters of the Nile - Europeans looked on Africa as a Romantic, Mysterious Place “Dr. Livingston I Presume?” • Colonial Rivalries • Africa in 1914 Berlin Conference • Berlin Conference (1884-85) - Workout the Partition of Africa 1. The Congo controlled by Belgium and an International Assoc. 2. Open use of the Niger & Congo Rivers 3. European Powers could acquire land by- First occupying it and settling it - Notifying the other nations of the claim Boer War • Boer War (18991903) • Boer's (Dutch Immigrants) Settled South Africa - Gold Discovered (1884) - British battle with Rights to South Africa - Britain Prevailed - Union of South Africa The Pacific Rim • Pacific Rim Capt. Alfred Mahan – The Influence of Sea Power Upon History - Nations that controlled the seas prevailed Colonial Rivalries: Asia in 1914 Pacific Rim • Asia - Britain & France influence in Hong Kong - Boxer Rebellion - 1900 - Rebellion in China against western influence in China - An International Force ended the Rebellion - The United States Open Door Policy - Recognized China's Independence - Allowed free trade access for all nations - Russia attempt to colonies Manchuria - Russo - Japanese War in 1904 Boxer Rebellion Open Door Policy The British Empire in 1914 Imperialism as a Source of Conflict • "New Imperialism" sparked Competition for: - Raw Materials - World Market Share - Capital • Scramble For Africa Fachoda Crisis - 1898 - Battle over the Sudan between France & England - Over Headwaters of the Nile - France considered a full scale war (Navy?) - War avoided! For Now - 1896-1906 - Dreyfus Affair - Theodor Herzl - Zionism 1st Moroccan Crisis - 1905-06 • Germany vs France, England, Italy, & Russia • Morocco occupied jointly by France • Wilhelm II of Germany spoke for Moroccan Independence • Russia & Italy got involved because of alliances with France 2nd Moroccan Crisis (1911) – rebellion in Fez The Balkans in 1878 Balkan Crisis - 1908 • Imperialist Rivalry within Europe - Austria-Hung. - some control over the Balkans - This influence was opposed by Russia (Natural Area of Russia) - Wanted a Sea Port on the Mediterranean (WARM WATER PORT!) - Ottoman Empire was almost collapsed in 1908 - Austria & Russia came to an agreement - Austria would annex Boznia & Herzegovina - Russia would be given rights to the straits Balkan Crisis - 1908 • GB Protested & Russia backed down - Austria Annexed the Balkans anyway - The Pan-Slavists protested violently & asked Russia for Help - Russo-Austrian war was about to start - Russia backed down because Germany was allied with Austria - Warning! Rising Nationalism in the Balkans Tensions & Conflicts: 18731914 • • • • • • Russo-Japanese War (1905) Triple Entente (1907) Br, Fr, Rus The Bosnian/Balkan Crisis of 1908 Second Moroccan Crisis (1911) The First Balkan War (1912) The Second Balkan War (1913) The Balkan Wars: 1912-1913 Europe in 1914