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CHAPTER Twenty-one What Is a Nation? Territories, States, and Citizens, 1848–1871 Introduction • Key events • • • • 1848 revolutions Mexican-American War Seneca Falls Convention California gold rush Introduction • Key themes • • • • 1848 as high point of the age of revolution Nationalism and nation building Political reform—government and citizens American Civil War Nationalism and Revolution in 1848 • Central and eastern Europe • Roots of revolution—social antagonisms, economic crises, political change • Liberal goals • • • • Representative government An end to privilege Economic development National unity Nationalism and Revolution in 1848 • Who makes a nation? Germany in 1848 • The German Confederation • Created at the Congress of Vienna • Loose organization of thirty-eight states, including Austria and Prussia Nationalism and Revolution in 1848 • Who makes a nation? Germany in 1848 • Prussia • Tried to establish itself as the leading independent national power • Zollverein (1834) • • • • • Established as a customs union Established free trade among German states Uniform tariffs By the 1840s, it included all German states except Austria A potential market of 34 million people • Political clubs • Students and other radicals joined with middle-class reform groups • New demands for representative government • Attacked autocracy and bureaucratic authority • Frederick William IV (1795–1861, r. 1840–1861) • Made gestures toward the liberal cause • His regime reverted to authoritarianism Nationalism and Revolution in 1848 • The Frankfurt Assembly and German nationhood • Most delegates represented the professional classes • Most were moderate liberals • Desired a constitution for a liberal, unified Germany • Problems • No resources, no sovereign power, and no single legal code • The nationalist question • The “Great German” position and “Small Germany” • The assembly accepted the “Small Germany” solution • Left out all lands of the Habsburgs • In April 1849 offered the crown to Frederick William IV, who refused it • Kaiser wanted the crown and larger state on his terms alone • The delegates left the assembly disillusioned • Popular revolution • • • • Peasants ransacked tax offices and burned castles Workers smashed machines Formation of citizen militias Newspapers and political clubs Nationalism and Revolution in 1848 • Peoples against empire: The Habsburg lands • Ethnic and language groups • Germans, Czechs, Magyars, Poles, Slovaks, Serbs, and Italians • Hungarian nationalist claims advanced by the small Magyar aristocracy • Lajos Kossuth (1802–1894) • Member of the lower nobility • Published transcripts of parliamentary debates • Campaigned for independence and a separate Hungarian parliament • Wanted to bring politics to the people • Pan-Slavism • Russians, Poles, Ukrainians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Macedonians, and Bulgarians • Desire for a union of Slavic-speaking people • Resented oppressive Russian rule Nationalism and Revolution in 1848 • Austria and Hungary in 1848: springtime of peoples and the autumn of empire • Kossuth stepped up his campaigns • Demanded representative institutions • Autonomy for the Hungarian Magyar nation • Vienna—popular movement of students and artisans • Demanded political and social reforms • Built barricades and attacked the imperial palace • Government concessions • Male suffrage and single house of representatives • Worked toward the abolition of serfdom • Yielded to Czech demands in Bohemia • Italian liberals and nationalists attacked empire’s territories Nationalism and Revolution in 1848 • Austria and Hungary in 1848: springtime of peoples and the autumn of empire • The paradox of nationalism • No cultural or ethnic majority could declare its independence without prompting rebellion elsewhere • Insurrection in Prague (May 1848) • Austrian troops sent to restore order • Slav congress disbands • The March laws • Hungarian parliament abolished serfdom and noble privilege • Established freedom of the press and of religion • Changed suffrage requirements, enfranchised smallproperty holders • Provoked opposition from Croats, Serbs, and Romanians within Hungary Nationalism and Revolution in 1848 • Austria and Hungary in 1848: springtime of peoples and the autumn of empire • Austrian government appointed anti-Magyar Josip Jelacic as governor of Croatia • Kossuth severed all ties between Hungary and Austria • Franz Josef asked Nicholas I of Russia for military support • The Hungarian revolt was crushed (August 1849) • Liberal government capitulated on October 31, 1849 • • • • Reestablished censorship Disbanded the national guard and student organizations Twenty-five revolutionary leaders went to the firing squad Kossuth exiled himself to Turkey Nationalism and Revolution in 1848 • The early stages of Italian unification in 1848 • A patchwork of small states • Giuseppi Mazzini (1805–1872) • Founded the Young Italy society (1831) • Anti-Austrian • Favored constitutional reforms • Dedicated to Italian unification • Invaded Sardinia—Mazzini driven to exile in England • 1848 raised hopes for political and social change and Italian unification • The risorgimento—Italian resurgence Building the Nation-State • Nationalism after 1848 • States and governments took the initiative • Alarmed by revolutionary ferment • Promoted economic development and social and political reform Building the Nation-State • France under Napoleon III • Believed in personal rule and a centralized state • Control of finances, the army, and foreign affairs • An elected assembly had no real power • Aimed to put the countryside under the rule of the modern state • Undermined traditional elites, fashioned a new relationship with the people Building the Nation-State • France under Napoleon III • Economic changes • Took steps to develop the economy • Faith in the ability of industrial expansion to bring prosperity and national glory • Passed new limited-liability laws • Signed a free-trade agreement with Britain (1860) • Founded the Crédit Mobilier • Reluctantly permitted trade unions and the legalization of strikes Building the Nation-State • France under Napoleon III • Paris and Napoleon III • • • • Massive rebuilding of the medieval infrastructure Financed by the Crédit Mobilier Erected 34,000 new buildings Wholesale renovation did not benefit everyone Building the Nation-State • Victorian England and the Second Reform Bill (1867) • British government faced demands to extend the franchise beyond the middle classes • Industrial expansion had created a “labor aristocracy” of skilled workers • Building, engineering, and textile industries • Favored collective self-help through cooperative societies and trade unions • Collected funds against old age and unemployment • Education as a tool for advancement Building the Nation-State • Victorian England and the Second Reform Bill (1867) • Campaign for a new reform bill • Working-class leaders joined middle-class dissidents • Backed by Benjamin Disraeli (1804–1881) • Political life would be improved by including the “aristocrats of labor” Building the Nation-State • Victorian England and the Second Reform Bill (1867) • Great Reform Bill (1867) • Doubled the franchise • Men who paid poor rates or rent of £10 per year in urban areas • Rural tenants paying rent of £12 or more • Large northern cities gained representation Building the Nation-State • Victorian England and the Second Reform Bill (1867) • The bill was silent on women • A women’s suffrage movement mobilized • John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) • On Liberty (1859) • The Subjection of Women (1869) • Women should be considered on the same plane as men • Women’s freedom as a measure of social progress • Reform Bill of 1867 as the high point of British liberalism Building the Nation-State • Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi • Two visions of Italian statehood • Giuseppi Garibaldi (1807–1882) • Committed to achieving national unification through a popular movement • Economic and political reforms without democracy • Pinned their hopes on Piedmont-Sardinia • Victor Emmanuel II (1849–1861) Building the Nation-State • Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi • Count Camillo Benso di Cavour (1810– 1861) • Pursued pragmatic reforms guided by the state • Promoted economic expansion and a modern transportation infrastructure Building the Nation-State • Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi • Cavour and Italy • Relied on diplomacy • Cultivated an alliance with France in order to drive the Austrians from Italy • War with Austria (1859) • Piedmont-Sardinia annexed Lombardy • The southern states • A peasant revolt was brewing in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies • Garibaldi landed in Sicily (1860) • “The Thousand” gained widespread support for unification • Garibaldi took Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel • Garibaldi marched on Rome Building the Nation-State • Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi • Garibaldi and Cavour • Cavour worried that Garibaldi would bring French or Austrian intervention • Cavour preferred that unification take place quickly, without domestic turmoil • The king ordered Garibaldi to cede military authority Building the Nation-State • Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi • Final gains • Venetia remained in Austrian hands until 1866 • Italian soldiers occupied Rome in September 1870 • Rome became the capital of a united Italian kingdom in July 1871 • Law of Papal Guaranties defined and limited the pope’s status • Widening gap between industrial north and rural south Building the Nation-State • The unification of Germany: Realpolitik • Realpolitik as the watchword of the 1850s and 60s • Frederick William of Prussia • Granted a Prussian constitution • Established a bicameral parliament • Modified electoral system to reinforce hierarchies of wealth and power • Divided voters into three classes based on the amount of taxes they paid • A large landowner or industrialist had 100 times the voting power of a common working man Building the Nation-State • The unification of Germany: Realpolitik • Growth of the Prussian middle class • Active liberal intelligentsia • Liberal civil service • Liberalism and Frederick William IV (1840– 1861) • King wanted to expand the standing army and take military matters out of parliamentary control • William named Bismarck minister-president of Prussia (1862) Building the Nation-State • The unification of Germany: Realpolitik • Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898) • Prussian Junker and defender of the monarchy • Opposed liberalism and nationalism • Believed that some sort of union was inevitable and that Prussia ought to take the initiative • Bismarck and the opposition • Defied parliamentary opposition • Dissolved parliament over the levy of taxes Building the Nation-State • The unification of Germany: Realpolitik • Bismarck and foreign policy • Played the “nationalist card” to preempt his liberal opponents • Believed that the German Confederation was no longer useful • The dispute over Schleswig-Holstein • The Seven Weeks’ War • Austria agreed to dissolve the Confederation • Bismarck created the Northern German Confederation Building the Nation-State • The unification of Germany: Realpolitik • The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) • A conflict with France would aid German nationalism in Bavaria, Württemberg, and other southern states • German states rallied to Prussia’s side • No European powers came to the aid of France • The Prussian army • Napoleon III captured at Sedan • The German Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles on January 18, 1871 Building the Nation-State • The state and nationality: centrifugal forces in the Austrian Empire • The Habsburgs abolished serfdom but made few other reforms • The Hungarians were essentially reconquered • Administrative reforms • New and more uniform legal system • Rationalized taxation • Imposed a single-language policy favoring German Building the Nation-State • The state and nationality: centrifugal forces in the Austrian Empire • Ethnic relations • Grew more tense • Francis Joseph (1848–1916, emperor of Austria) • Agreed to the new federal structure Building the Nation-State • The state and nationality: centrifugal forces in the Austrian Empire • The Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary) • Common system of taxation, common army, made foreign and military policy together • Internal and constitutional affairs were separated • No national unification in Habsburg lands Nation and State Building in Russia and the United States • Territory, the state, and serfdom: Russia • Abolition of serfdom as part of a project to rebuild Russia as a modern state • The emancipation decree of 1861 • • • • • Massive in scope, limited in change Granted legal rights to 22 million serfs Gave former serfs title to a portion of the land Required the state to compensate landowners Newly liberated serfs had to pay installments for their land • Law granted land to the peasant commune (mir), not individual serfs Nation and State Building in Russia and the United States • Territory, the state, and serfdom: Russia • Expansion • Russia pressed east and south • Invaded and conquered independent Islamic kingdoms along the Silk Road • Founded Siberian city of Vladivostok in 1860 • In most cases, Russia did not assimilate the populations of new territories Nation and State Building in Russia and the United States • Territory and the nation-state: The United States • The Jeffersonian revolution • Combined democratic aspirations with national expansion • Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809) • The independence of the yeoman farmer • Territorial expansion • Added millions of acres of prime cotton land • Extended the empire of slavery Nation and State Building in Russia and the United States • The politics of slavery • The legality of slavery • Southern United States, Brazil, Cuba, most of Africa, parts of India and the Islamic world • Slavery and the Enlightenment • Slavery contradicted natural law and natural freedom • Slavery as metaphor for everything that was bad • England and the abolition of the slave trade • William Wilberforce and the immorality of the slave trade • Parliament passes a bill prohibiting English ships to participate in the slave trade (1807) Nation and State Building in Russia and the United States • The politics of slavery • Why did attempts to abolish slavery occur? • • • • • • Less profitable Adam Smith and free trade Religious revivalism Appealed to women reformers The working classes Slave rebellions • Rebellions in Virginia, Louisiana, and South Carolina (1800–1822) • Rebellions in Barbados and Jamaica (1816–1831) • Increased the slaveholders’ sense of vulnerability and isolation Nation and State Building in Russia and the United States • The politics of slavery • Abolition of slavery in Great Britain and France (1838–1848) • Latin America • Nationalist leaders recruited slaves to fight the Spanish • Simon de Bolivar • Cuba • A Spanish colony, 40 percent slaves • The sugar industry • Abolition began in the 1870s Nation and State Building in Russia and the United States • The American Civil War • Would new states be “free” or “slave”? • Northern calls for “free labor” • Failure of elaborate compromises led to civil war in 1861 Nation and State Building in Russia and the United States • The American Civil War • Consequences of the Civil War • The abolition of slavery • Established the preeminence of the national government over states’ rights • The Fourteenth Amendment • Due process defined by the national not state government • The expansion of the U.S. economy • War laid the foundations for the modern American nation-state Eastern Questions: The Decline of Ottoman Power and International Relations • The Eastern Question • Strategic interest, systems of alliances, and the balance of power in Europe • The Crimean War • Russia invaded Ottoman territories of Moldavia and Walachia • Austria garrisoned its troops • Russia turned on the Turks • Provoked French and British fears of Russian expansion • A short but gruesome war • “The charge of the Light Brigade” Eastern Questions: The Decline of Ottoman Power and International Relations • The Eastern Question • Importance of the war • Peace settlement was a setback for Russia • Embarrassed French prestige • Innovations in warfare • Rifled muskets, underwater mines, and trench warfare • Railroads and telegraphs • Correspondents and photojournalists—a “public” war Eastern Questions: The Decline of Ottoman Power and International Relations • Realism: “democracy in art” • A strict rejection of artistic conventions • The movement toward honest, objective, authentic representations of the world • Focus on the material world • A debt to nineteenth-century science • Émile Zola (1840–1902) • An exact, scientific presentation of society • Profound sympathy with the common person and a desire for social justice • Confronted the social problems of working-class life Eastern Questions: The Decline of Ottoman Power and International Relations • Realism: Democracy in art • The critique of contemporary society • Russian writers joined realism with philosophical themes • Ivan Turgenev (1818–1883) • Fathers and Sons (1862) • Condemned existing social order • Provided inspiration to young Russian intellectuals • Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881) • The psychology of anguished minds • Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) • War and Peace (1863–1869) • The fate of individuals caught up in the powerful movement of history Conclusion • 1850–1870 as decades of intense nation building • Unifications of Italy and Germany • The rise of the United States • Nationalism as an erratic and malleable force This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint for Chapter 21. http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/wciv_16e/brief