Download CHAPTER 21 What Is a Nation? Territories, States, and

CHAPTER
Twenty-one
What Is a Nation? Territories,
States, and Citizens, 1848–1871
Introduction
• Key events
•
•
•
•
1848 revolutions
Mexican-American War
Seneca Falls Convention
California gold rush
Introduction
• Key themes
•
•
•
•
1848 as high point of the age of revolution
Nationalism and nation building
Political reform—government and citizens
American Civil War
Nationalism and Revolution in 1848
• Central and eastern Europe
• Roots of revolution—social antagonisms,
economic crises, political change
• Liberal goals
•
•
•
•
Representative government
An end to privilege
Economic development
National unity
Nationalism and Revolution in 1848
• Who makes a nation? Germany in 1848
• The German Confederation
• Created at the Congress of Vienna
• Loose organization of thirty-eight states,
including Austria and Prussia
Nationalism and Revolution in 1848
• Who makes a nation? Germany in 1848
• Prussia
• Tried to establish itself as the leading independent national
power
• Zollverein (1834)
•
•
•
•
•
Established as a customs union
Established free trade among German states
Uniform tariffs
By the 1840s, it included all German states except Austria
A potential market of 34 million people
• Political clubs
• Students and other radicals joined with middle-class reform groups
• New demands for representative government
• Attacked autocracy and bureaucratic authority
• Frederick William IV (1795–1861, r. 1840–1861)
• Made gestures toward the liberal cause
• His regime reverted to authoritarianism
Nationalism and Revolution in 1848
• The Frankfurt Assembly and German nationhood
• Most delegates represented the professional classes
• Most were moderate liberals
• Desired a constitution for a liberal, unified Germany
• Problems
• No resources, no sovereign power, and no single legal code
• The nationalist question
• The “Great German” position and “Small Germany”
• The assembly accepted the “Small Germany” solution
• Left out all lands of the Habsburgs
• In April 1849 offered the crown to Frederick William IV, who refused it
• Kaiser wanted the crown and larger state on his terms alone
• The delegates left the assembly disillusioned
• Popular revolution
•
•
•
•
Peasants ransacked tax offices and burned castles
Workers smashed machines
Formation of citizen militias
Newspapers and political clubs
Nationalism and Revolution in 1848
• Peoples against empire: The Habsburg lands
• Ethnic and language groups
• Germans, Czechs, Magyars, Poles, Slovaks, Serbs, and
Italians
• Hungarian nationalist claims advanced by the small
Magyar aristocracy
• Lajos Kossuth (1802–1894)
• Member of the lower nobility
• Published transcripts of parliamentary debates
• Campaigned for independence and a separate Hungarian
parliament
• Wanted to bring politics to the people
• Pan-Slavism
• Russians, Poles, Ukrainians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes,
Croats, Serbs, Macedonians, and Bulgarians
• Desire for a union of Slavic-speaking people
• Resented oppressive Russian rule
Nationalism and Revolution in 1848
• Austria and Hungary in 1848: springtime of
peoples and the autumn of empire
• Kossuth stepped up his campaigns
• Demanded representative institutions
• Autonomy for the Hungarian Magyar nation
• Vienna—popular movement of students and
artisans
• Demanded political and social reforms
• Built barricades and attacked the imperial palace
• Government concessions
• Male suffrage and single house of representatives
• Worked toward the abolition of serfdom
• Yielded to Czech demands in Bohemia
• Italian liberals and nationalists attacked empire’s territories
Nationalism and Revolution in 1848
• Austria and Hungary in 1848: springtime of
peoples and the autumn of empire
• The paradox of nationalism
• No cultural or ethnic majority could declare its
independence without prompting rebellion elsewhere
• Insurrection in Prague (May 1848)
• Austrian troops sent to restore order
• Slav congress disbands
• The March laws
• Hungarian parliament abolished serfdom and noble
privilege
• Established freedom of the press and of religion
• Changed suffrage requirements, enfranchised smallproperty holders
• Provoked opposition from Croats, Serbs, and Romanians
within Hungary
Nationalism and Revolution in 1848
• Austria and Hungary in 1848: springtime of
peoples and the autumn of empire
• Austrian government appointed anti-Magyar Josip
Jelacic as governor of Croatia
• Kossuth severed all ties between Hungary and
Austria
• Franz Josef asked Nicholas I of Russia for military
support
• The Hungarian revolt was crushed (August 1849)
• Liberal government capitulated on October 31,
1849
•
•
•
•
Reestablished censorship
Disbanded the national guard and student organizations
Twenty-five revolutionary leaders went to the firing squad
Kossuth exiled himself to Turkey
Nationalism and Revolution in
1848
• The early stages of Italian unification in 1848
• A patchwork of small states
• Giuseppi Mazzini (1805–1872)
• Founded the Young Italy society (1831)
• Anti-Austrian
• Favored constitutional reforms
• Dedicated to Italian unification
• Invaded Sardinia—Mazzini driven to exile in England
• 1848 raised hopes for political and social change
and Italian unification
• The risorgimento—Italian resurgence
Building the Nation-State
• Nationalism after 1848
• States and governments took the initiative
• Alarmed by revolutionary ferment
• Promoted economic development and social
and political reform
Building the Nation-State
• France under Napoleon III
• Believed in personal rule and a centralized
state
• Control of finances, the army, and foreign affairs
• An elected assembly had no real power
• Aimed to put the countryside under the rule of
the modern state
• Undermined traditional elites, fashioned a new
relationship with the people
Building the Nation-State
• France under Napoleon III
• Economic changes
• Took steps to develop the economy
• Faith in the ability of industrial expansion to bring
prosperity and national glory
• Passed new limited-liability laws
• Signed a free-trade agreement with Britain
(1860)
• Founded the Crédit Mobilier
• Reluctantly permitted trade unions and the
legalization of strikes
Building the Nation-State
• France under Napoleon III
• Paris and Napoleon III
•
•
•
•
Massive rebuilding of the medieval infrastructure
Financed by the Crédit Mobilier
Erected 34,000 new buildings
Wholesale renovation did not benefit everyone
Building the Nation-State
• Victorian England and the Second
Reform Bill (1867)
• British government faced demands to
extend the franchise beyond the middle
classes
• Industrial expansion had created a “labor
aristocracy” of skilled workers
• Building, engineering, and textile industries
• Favored collective self-help through cooperative
societies and trade unions
• Collected funds against old age and unemployment
• Education as a tool for advancement
Building the Nation-State
• Victorian England and the Second
Reform Bill (1867)
• Campaign for a new reform bill
• Working-class leaders joined middle-class
dissidents
• Backed by Benjamin Disraeli (1804–1881)
• Political life would be improved by including the
“aristocrats of labor”
Building the Nation-State
• Victorian England and the Second
Reform Bill (1867)
• Great Reform Bill (1867)
• Doubled the franchise
• Men who paid poor rates or rent of £10 per year in
urban areas
• Rural tenants paying rent of £12 or more
• Large northern cities gained representation
Building the Nation-State
• Victorian England and the Second
Reform Bill (1867)
• The bill was silent on women
• A women’s suffrage movement mobilized
• John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)
• On Liberty (1859)
• The Subjection of Women (1869)
• Women should be considered on the same plane as
men
• Women’s freedom as a measure of social progress
• Reform Bill of 1867 as the high point of
British liberalism
Building the Nation-State
• Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi
• Two visions of Italian statehood
• Giuseppi Garibaldi (1807–1882)
• Committed to achieving national unification through a
popular movement
• Economic and political reforms without
democracy
• Pinned their hopes on Piedmont-Sardinia
• Victor Emmanuel II (1849–1861)
Building the Nation-State
• Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi
• Count Camillo Benso di Cavour (1810–
1861)
• Pursued pragmatic reforms guided by the state
• Promoted economic expansion and a modern
transportation infrastructure
Building the Nation-State
• Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi
• Cavour and Italy
• Relied on diplomacy
• Cultivated an alliance with France in order to drive the
Austrians from Italy
• War with Austria (1859)
• Piedmont-Sardinia annexed Lombardy
• The southern states
• A peasant revolt was brewing in the kingdom of the Two
Sicilies
• Garibaldi landed in Sicily (1860)
• “The Thousand” gained widespread support for unification
• Garibaldi took Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel
• Garibaldi marched on Rome
Building the Nation-State
• Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi
• Garibaldi and Cavour
• Cavour worried that Garibaldi would bring
French or Austrian intervention
• Cavour preferred that unification take place
quickly, without domestic turmoil
• The king ordered Garibaldi to cede military
authority
Building the Nation-State
• Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi
• Final gains
• Venetia remained in Austrian hands until 1866
• Italian soldiers occupied Rome in September
1870
• Rome became the capital of a united Italian
kingdom in July 1871
• Law of Papal Guaranties defined and limited the
pope’s status
• Widening gap between industrial north and rural
south
Building the Nation-State
• The unification of Germany: Realpolitik
• Realpolitik as the watchword of the 1850s
and 60s
• Frederick William of Prussia
• Granted a Prussian constitution
• Established a bicameral parliament
• Modified electoral system to reinforce
hierarchies of wealth and power
• Divided voters into three classes based on the amount
of taxes they paid
• A large landowner or industrialist had 100 times the
voting power of a common working man
Building the Nation-State
• The unification of Germany: Realpolitik
• Growth of the Prussian middle class
• Active liberal intelligentsia
• Liberal civil service
• Liberalism and Frederick William IV (1840–
1861)
• King wanted to expand the standing army and
take military matters out of parliamentary control
• William named Bismarck minister-president of
Prussia (1862)
Building the Nation-State
• The unification of Germany: Realpolitik
• Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898)
• Prussian Junker and defender of the monarchy
• Opposed liberalism and nationalism
• Believed that some sort of union was inevitable
and that Prussia ought to take the initiative
• Bismarck and the opposition
• Defied parliamentary opposition
• Dissolved parliament over the levy of taxes
Building the Nation-State
• The unification of Germany: Realpolitik
• Bismarck and foreign policy
• Played the “nationalist card” to preempt his
liberal opponents
• Believed that the German Confederation was no
longer useful
• The dispute over Schleswig-Holstein
• The Seven Weeks’ War
• Austria agreed to dissolve the Confederation
• Bismarck created the Northern German
Confederation
Building the Nation-State
• The unification of Germany: Realpolitik
• The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)
• A conflict with France would aid German
nationalism in Bavaria, Württemberg, and other
southern states
• German states rallied to Prussia’s side
• No European powers came to the aid of France
• The Prussian army
• Napoleon III captured at Sedan
• The German Empire was proclaimed in the
Hall of Mirrors at Versailles on January 18,
1871
Building the Nation-State
• The state and nationality: centrifugal
forces in the Austrian Empire
• The Habsburgs abolished serfdom but
made few other reforms
• The Hungarians were essentially
reconquered
• Administrative reforms
• New and more uniform legal system
• Rationalized taxation
• Imposed a single-language policy favoring
German
Building the Nation-State
• The state and nationality: centrifugal
forces in the Austrian Empire
• Ethnic relations
• Grew more tense
• Francis Joseph (1848–1916, emperor of
Austria)
• Agreed to the new federal structure
Building the Nation-State
• The state and nationality: centrifugal
forces in the Austrian Empire
• The Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary)
• Common system of taxation, common army,
made foreign and military policy together
• Internal and constitutional affairs were separated
• No national unification in Habsburg lands
Nation and State Building in Russia
and the United States
• Territory, the state, and serfdom: Russia
• Abolition of serfdom as part of a project to
rebuild Russia as a modern state
• The emancipation decree of 1861
•
•
•
•
•
Massive in scope, limited in change
Granted legal rights to 22 million serfs
Gave former serfs title to a portion of the land
Required the state to compensate landowners
Newly liberated serfs had to pay installments for
their land
• Law granted land to the peasant commune (mir),
not individual serfs
Nation and State Building in Russia
and the United States
• Territory, the state, and serfdom: Russia
• Expansion
• Russia pressed east and south
• Invaded and conquered independent Islamic
kingdoms along the Silk Road
• Founded Siberian city of Vladivostok in 1860
• In most cases, Russia did not assimilate the
populations of new territories
Nation and State Building in Russia
and the United States
• Territory and the nation-state: The
United States
• The Jeffersonian revolution
• Combined democratic aspirations with national
expansion
• Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809)
• The independence of the yeoman farmer
• Territorial expansion
• Added millions of acres of prime cotton land
• Extended the empire of slavery
Nation and State Building in Russia
and the United States
• The politics of slavery
• The legality of slavery
• Southern United States, Brazil, Cuba, most of
Africa, parts of India and the Islamic world
• Slavery and the Enlightenment
• Slavery contradicted natural law and natural
freedom
• Slavery as metaphor for everything that was bad
• England and the abolition of the slave trade
• William Wilberforce and the immorality of the slave
trade
• Parliament passes a bill prohibiting English ships to
participate in the slave trade (1807)
Nation and State Building in Russia
and the United States
• The politics of slavery
• Why did attempts to abolish slavery occur?
•
•
•
•
•
•
Less profitable
Adam Smith and free trade
Religious revivalism
Appealed to women reformers
The working classes
Slave rebellions
• Rebellions in Virginia, Louisiana, and South Carolina
(1800–1822)
• Rebellions in Barbados and Jamaica (1816–1831)
• Increased the slaveholders’ sense of vulnerability and
isolation
Nation and State Building in Russia
and the United States
• The politics of slavery
• Abolition of slavery in Great Britain and
France (1838–1848)
• Latin America
• Nationalist leaders recruited slaves to fight the
Spanish
• Simon de Bolivar
• Cuba
• A Spanish colony, 40 percent slaves
• The sugar industry
• Abolition began in the 1870s
Nation and State Building in Russia
and the United States
• The American Civil War
• Would new states be “free” or “slave”?
• Northern calls for “free labor”
• Failure of elaborate compromises led to civil
war in 1861
Nation and State Building in Russia
and the United States
• The American Civil War
• Consequences of the Civil War
• The abolition of slavery
• Established the preeminence of the national
government over states’ rights
• The Fourteenth Amendment
• Due process defined by the national not state
government
• The expansion of the U.S. economy
• War laid the foundations for the modern
American nation-state
Eastern Questions: The Decline of Ottoman
Power and International Relations
• The Eastern Question
• Strategic interest, systems of alliances, and
the balance of power in Europe
• The Crimean War
• Russia invaded Ottoman territories of Moldavia
and Walachia
• Austria garrisoned its troops
• Russia turned on the Turks
• Provoked French and British fears of Russian
expansion
• A short but gruesome war
• “The charge of the Light Brigade”
Eastern Questions: The Decline of Ottoman
Power and International Relations
• The Eastern Question
• Importance of the war
• Peace settlement was a setback for Russia
• Embarrassed French prestige
• Innovations in warfare
• Rifled muskets, underwater mines, and trench warfare
• Railroads and telegraphs
• Correspondents and photojournalists—a “public”
war
Eastern Questions: The Decline of Ottoman
Power and International Relations
• Realism: “democracy in art”
• A strict rejection of artistic conventions
• The movement toward honest, objective,
authentic representations of the world
• Focus on the material world
• A debt to nineteenth-century science
• Émile Zola (1840–1902)
• An exact, scientific presentation of society
• Profound sympathy with the common person
and a desire for social justice
• Confronted the social problems of working-class
life
Eastern Questions: The Decline of Ottoman
Power and International Relations
• Realism: Democracy in art
• The critique of contemporary society
• Russian writers joined realism with philosophical
themes
• Ivan Turgenev (1818–1883)
• Fathers and Sons (1862)
• Condemned existing social order
• Provided inspiration to young Russian intellectuals
• Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881)
• The psychology of anguished minds
• Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910)
• War and Peace (1863–1869)
• The fate of individuals caught up in the powerful movement
of history
Conclusion
• 1850–1870 as decades of intense nation
building
• Unifications of Italy and Germany
• The rise of the United States
• Nationalism as an erratic and malleable
force
This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint for Chapter 21.
http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/wciv_16e/brief