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Cover Slide Maps and Images for McKay 8e A History of Western Society Chapter 27 The Great Break: War and Revolution "On Her Their Lives Depend" "On Her Their Lives Depend" In Britain, as elsewhere, women responded to appeals like this, and quickly became prominent in the munitions industry. The chance to perform valued public roles during the wartime emergency proved a watershed for many women. (Courtesy of the Trustees of the Imperial War Museum) "Russian Ruling House" cartoon "Russian Ruling House" cartoon The most trusted adviser of Alexandra, wife of Tsar Nicholas II, was an uneducated Siberian preacher who was appropriately nicknamed Rasputin--the "Degenerate." This wartime cartoon captures the ominous, spellbinding power Rasputin had over the royal couple. His manipulations disgusted Russian public opinion and contributed to the monarchy's collapse. (Stock Montage) Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand This photograph depicts the capture of the assassin of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Habsburg throne, on a visit to Sarajevo in Austrian-ruled Bosnia. A young Bosnian nationalist, Gavril Princip, was arrested minutes after he had assassinated the archduke and his wife, on June 28, 1914. This political murder helped unleash World War I. (Gernsheim Collection, Harry Ransom Humanities Center, University of Texas, Austin) Canadians in trench warfare Canadians in trench warfare German and Allied soldiers on the Western Front faced each other across an elaborate network of trenches. Attacking meant jumping out of the trenches and racing across a noman's land of mud and barbed wire. In this Canadian painting we see the Princess Patrice's Canadian Light Infantry repelling a German attack near Ypres, in northern France, in March 1915, using machine guns, rifles, and hand grenades. Faisal and T.E. Lawrence in Paris Faisal and T.E. Lawrence in Paris The Arab Prince Faisal (1885-1993; foreground)--who would later become king of Iraq-attended the Paris Peace Conference, where he lobbied for the creation of an independent Arab kingdom from part of the former Ottoman Turkish holdings in the Middle East. Among his supporters was the British officer Colonel T.E. Lawrence (middle row, second from the right), on his way to becoming the legendary "Lawrence of Arabia." German ration book German ration book This ration coupon shows a long line of hungry Germans waiting to buy half a pound of strictly rationed sausage, the sale of which the city government has just announced. Food rations were cut as the Allied blockade tightened, and rationing continued in Germany (as it did in Britain) for some years after the war. Germans in trench warfare Germans in trench warfare In this photo we have a sense of the tragic absurdity of trench warfare. German soldiers charge across a scarred battlefield and overrun an enemy trench. The dead defender on the right will fire no more. But this is only another futile charge that will yield much blood and little land. A whole generation of young men is being decimated by the slaughter. Leftist agitation in Germany Leftist agitation in Germany Revolutionary unrest reached its peak in Germany during December 1918 and January 1919, when this photo in Berlin was taken. But even after the leaders of the revolution-Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg--were captured and murdered in January, the possibility of further revolution dominated the first months of the new Weimar Lenin as orator, 1920 Lenin as orator, 1920 The Bolsheviks were a small but tightly disciplined group of radicals obedient to the will of their leader, Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924). Here he is addressing Red Army soldiers in Sverdlov Square, Moscow, in 1920. At the time, the Bolsheviks were mopping up the last of the anti-Bolshevik forces and were fully engaged in a war with Poland. The fate of the Revolution depended on the fighting spirit of the Red Army soldiers and on their loyalty to Lenin. (David King Collection) Lloyd George, Clemenceau, and Wilson Lloyd George, Clemenceau, and Wilson In June 1919 the leaders of the major victorious powers exude confidence after signing the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, the most important of the five treaties that resulted from the Paris Peace Conference. In this photo are from the left: David Lloyd George of Britain, Georges Clemenceau of France, and Woodrow Wilson of the United States. (Corbis) Munition workers, Britain Munition workers, Britain This 1915 photograph of a British war plant shows it straining to meet the insatiable demand for trench-smashing heavy artillery shells. (Courtesy of the Trustees of the Imperial War Museum) Mustafa Kemal in Western dress Mustafa Kemal in Western dress In 1919 Mustafa Kemal, a hero of the Gallipoli campaign, had formed a nationalist government in central Anatolia with the backing of fellow army officers. After World War I, he was determined to modernize Turkey on the western model. Here he is shown wearing a Europeanstyle suit and teaching the Latin alphabet. (Stock Montage) Paul Nash, Menil Road Paul Nash, Menil Road In 1917 Paul Nash (British surrealist painter, 1889-1946) was recruited as a war artist. In November of that year he was sent to the Western Front, where he painted several important pictures including this painting, The Menil Road. In a landscape ravaged by artillery fire, we see two soldiers dash for cover amid shell holes and the charred remains of a forest. Poster: "N'Oublions Jamais" Poster: "N'Oublions Jamais“ This 1915 French poster with its passionate headline-"Never Forget!"--dramatizes Germany's brutal invasion of Belgium in 1914. Neutral Belgium is personified as a traumatized mother, assaulted and ravished by savage outlaws. The "rape of Belgium" featured prominently, and effectively, in anti-German propaganda. (Mary Evans Picture Library) Poster: Russian woman in munitions factory Poster: Russian woman in munitions factory All over Europe, governments recruited women to work in munitions factories. This Russian government poster uses an image of a working woman to rally support for the war. The text reads "Everything for the war effort! Subscribe to the war loans at 5-1/2 percent." (Courtesy of the Trustees of the Imperial War Museum) Rupert Brooke Rupert Brooke Even as the war raged, soldiers like the Englishman Rupert Booke (1887-1915) sought to shape his experiences into poetic imagery. He was excited by the intensity of battle and pleased by his own calm selfcontrol. Back in England for further training, he wrote several sonnets expressing his feelings about the war. He died of blood poisoning on the way to battle in April 1915, without ever fully experiencing trench warfare. (TimePix/Getty Images) Russian demonstration, 1917 Russian demonstration, 1917 The mass demonstrations in Petrograd, June 1917, showed a surge of workingclass support for the Bolsheviks. In this photo, a few banners of the Mensheviks Soldiers leaving for war Soldiers leaving for war Spirits were high early in August, 1914, as Parisian soldiers like these shown in the photograph march off to war. None foresaw what fighting this war would be like. Versailles Treaty being signed Versailles Treaty being signed This group portrait by the painter William Orpen (born in Dublin, 1878 ) features the three principal Allied leaders (seated in the center), who have finally reached an agreement at Versailles, June 28, 1919. Like Paul Nash, Orpen had been recruited by the War Propaganda Bureau to paint on the Western Front. He was later commissioned to paint this portrait of politicians at the Versailles Peace Conference. Map: The Balkans After the Congress of Berlin, 1878 The Balkans After the Congress of Berlin, 1878 The Ottoman Empire suffered large territorial losses but remained a power in the Balkans.(Copyright (c) Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved.) Map: Austria-Hungary in 1878 Austria-Hungary in 1878 A multinational state, the Austro-Hungarian Empire occupied Bosnia in 1878, bringing more dissatisfied peoples under its rule. Tensions in the Balkans would lead to the outbreak of world war in 1914. Map: Ethnicity in East-Central Europe, 1919 Ethnicity in East-Central Europe, 1919 Ethnic diversity made it hard to create homogeneous nationstates in east-central Europe. The new states that emerged after World War I mixed ethnic groups, and ethnic tensions would contribute to future problems. (Copyright (c) Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved.) Foreign Intervention and Civil War in Revolutionary Russia, 1918-1920 Map: Foreign Intervention and Civil War in Revolutionary Russia, 1918-1920 By mid-1918 the new communist regime was under attack from many sides, by both foreign troops and anticommunist Russians. Bolshevik-held territory shrank during 1919, but over the next year the Red Army managed to regain much of what had been lost and to secure the new communist state. Anton Deniken, Alexander Kolchak, and Nicholas Yudenich commanded the most significant counterrevolutionary forces. Map: Major Fronts of World War I Major Fronts of World War I Although World War I included engagements in East Asia and the Middle East, it was essentially a European conflict, encompassing fighting on a number of fronts. A vast territory was contested in the east, but on the western front, which proved decisive, fighting was concentrated in a relatively small area. Map: Stalemate and Decision on the Western Front Stalemate and Decision on the Western Front On the western front, in northern France and Belgium, trench warfare developed and the best known battles of the war were fought. Notable sites include Verdun, Passchendaele, and the Marne and Somme Rivers. Map: The Balkans in 1914 The Balkans in 1914 Ethnic boundaries did not follow political boundaries, and Serbian national aspirations threatened Austria-Hungary. (Copyright (c) Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved.) Henry Cabot Lodge in 1909. Map:The Impact of the War: The Territorial Settlement in Europe and the Middle East The Impact of the War: The Territorial Settlement in Europe and the Middle East The defeat of Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Ottoman Turkey opened the way to major changes in the map of east-central Europe, while in the Arab world the end of the Ottoman rule meant not independence but new roles for European powers. “Big Four” at the Versailles Conference: Orlando of Italy, LloydGeorge of Great Britain, Clemenceau of France and Wilson. The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles • Wilson was confident that a just international peace, based on the Fourteen Points, could be achieved. His optimism proved mistaken. • Wilson was unable to prevent the Allies from seizing German colonies and territory from Germany proper, nor was he able to prevent implementation of harsh reparations upon the Germans within the Treaty of Versailles. • Wilson was not disillusioned, believing that the League of Nations could ameliorate flaws in the treaty. • Fourteen Points • Treaty of Versailles (1919) The League of Nations • For the league to succeed, Wilson had to convince the Senate to ratify the Treaty of Versailles. Two groups of Republicans would thwart him. • Article X American Neutrality • President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed American neutrality. It proved easier to proclaim than to achieve, however. – A British naval blockade forced Wilson to choose between suspending all trade or trading with the Allies alone. – Wilson, given that many Americans favored the Allied powers, and mindful that foreign trade was spearheading an economic boom, opted for trade with the Allies alone. • Edward M. House - Presidential Advisor • Robert Lansing - State Depart Advisor • William Jennings Bryan- Sec State Submarine Warfare • The German high command, angered by American supply of Germany’s enemies, resorted to unrestricted submarine warfare against all ships en route to the British Isles, regardless of the ship’s origins or flag. • The sinking of the Lusitania in 1915 prompted protests from Wilson. The Germans backed down. • The Germans resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in 1916. Upon the sinking of the Sussex in 1916, Wilson again protested, and Germany again backed down. • Sussex pledge (1916) The Lusitania arrives in New York for the first time (1907) Wilson’s Vision: “Peace without Victory” • Wilson won reelection in 1916 by a narrow margin over Charles Evans Hughes. His principal campaign slogan was “He kept us out of war.” • Wilson offered to help negotiate a peace among the warring powers. Those powers rebuffed him. • In the process, however, Wilson formulated ideas for lasting peace, what he called “peace without victory.” German Escalation • In early 1917, the Germans renewed unrestricted submarine attacks. • The British, meanwhile, passed on to Wilson the Zimmerman telegram, in which Germany’s foreign minister urged Mexico to attack the United States, promising a return of the lands lost in the Mexican-American War once victory was achieved. • Wilson approached Congress with a plea to enter the conflict in the name of democracy and global justice, and Congress obliged with a declaration of war on April 6, 1917. American Intervention • Russian revolution (1917) – Vladimir Lenin / Bolshevik Party / Brest-Litovsk • America entered the war at a time when German submarine attacks and Russia’s exit from the fighting had brought Allied fortunes to their lowest ebb. American forces proved critical to Allied victory. – Wilson’s Fourteen Points gave the Allied cause “ideological cement.” – American naval forces helped fend off the submarine threat. – The American expeditionary force (AEF) under General John Pershing played a pivotal role in both stopping the final German offensives and in spearheading Allied offensives that succeeded in forcing the Germans to sue for an armistice in November 1918. General John J. Pershing, commander of the American Expeditionary Force. Gas masks were standard equipment for US troops. An American soldier in France. American soldiers firing machine guns in France in 1918 Battle scene in northern France. Notice the trees. An example of trench warfare in France. The confusion behind the trenches in France. Some members of the 369th Infantry returned home in 1919 wearing the Croix de Guerre awarded by the French government for their accomplishments on the battlefield. • World War I was a turning point in Western civilization. – Europe was changed dramatically. – The Austro-Hungarian Empire, the German Empire, and Ottoman Empire were defeated. – Growing nationalism exerted an even greater influence on the political makeup of Europe. • There was a multiplicity of causes of the Great War. – Forces unleashed during the nineteenth century had a great impact. • Imperialism fueled competition among European states for foreign dominions. • Social Darwinism encouraged feelings of European superiority. • There was a multiplicity of causes of the Great War. – Military and industrial buildup created a war-footing in Europe. • Militarism led to a belief in the inevitability of European war. • Industrialism provided modern weaponry for mass destruction. • The participants succumbed to the belief that war was inevitable. – The Triple Entente was composed of Britain, France, and Russia. • The integrity of Belgium was at stake. • The Entente encircled Germany and her allies. – The Triple Alliance included Germany, Austria, and Italy. • Germany expressed a feeling of encirclement. • The war had a tremendous impact on Europe and left many unsolved problems. – German defeat led to the development of radical political movements that exerted pressure on German politics. • Communist factions attempted to transform Germany. • Right-wing groups such as the Nazis propagandized that Germany had been betrayed. – Germany was kept out of the international community. – Wilson’s League of Nations was a failure. • Wilson’s own Congress opposed his ideas. • The downfall of tsarist Russia followed in the wake of World War I. – Deteriorating conditions and agitating political groups combined to bring down the tsar. • War losses and mistakes pointed to the weak leadership of the tsar. • Food shortages led to revolution in March 1917. • A provisional government was proclaimed by the Duma. • The tsar abdicated. • Vladimir Lenin led the Bolshevik Revolution. – Lenin believed that revolution was necessary to destroy capitalism. – Lenin led an attack against the provisional government in July 1917. – Trotsky led a Soviet overthrow of the provisional government (November 1917). – The Bolsheviks came to power because they were the answer to anarchy. – The Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War led to the establishment of a Soviet dictatorship. 1 The Pursuit of Peace By the early 1900s, many efforts were underway to end war and foster understanding between nations. • In 1869, the first modern Olympic games were held. Their founder hoped the games would promote “love of peace and respect for life.” • Alfred Nobel set up the annual Nobel Peace Prize to reward people who worked for peace. • Women’s suffrage organizations supported pacifism, or opposition to all war. • In 1899, world leaders attended the First Universal Peace Conference. There they set up the Hague Tribunal, a world court to settle disputes between nations. Nationalism and International Rivalries 1 Aggressive nationalism was one leading cause of international tensions. • Nationalist feelings were strong in both Germany and France. • In Eastern Europe, Pan-Slavism held that all Slavic peoples shared a common nationality. Russia felt that it had a duty to lead and defend all Slavs. Imperial rivalries divided European nations. • In 1906 and again in 1911, competition for colonies brought France and Germany to the brink of war. The 1800s saw a rise in militarism, the glorification of the military. • The great powers expanded their armies and navies, creating an arms race that further increased suspicions and made war more likely. 1 Causes and Effects of European Alliances Distrust led the great powers to sign treaties pledging to defend one another. These alliances were intended to create powerful combinations that no one would dare attack. The growth of rival alliance systems increased international tensions. Standing Armies in Europe, 1914 1 2 Assassination in Sarajevo In 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary announced he would visit Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. • At the time, Bosnia was under the rule of Austria-Hungary. But it was also the home of many Serbs and other Slavs. News of the royal visit angered many Serbian nationalists. • They viewed Austrians as foreign oppressors. • The date chosen for the archduke’s visit was a significant date in Serbian history. On that date in 1389, Serbia had been conquered by the Ottoman empire. On the same date in 1912, Serbia had freed itself from Turkish rule. Members of a Serbian terrorist group assassinated the Archduke and his wife. 2 How Did the Conflict Widen? After the assassination of the archduke, Austria sent Serbia an ultimatum, or final set of demands. Serbia agreed to most, but not all, of the terms of Austria’s ultimatum. As a result, Austria declared war on Serbia. • Germany offered full support to Austria-Hungary. Instead of urging restraint, the kaiser gave Austria a “blank check.” • Serbia sought help from Russia, the champion of Slavic nations. When Austria refused to soften its demands, Russia began to mobilize. • Germany responded by declaring war on Russia. • Russia appealed to its ally France. France offered full support to Russia, prompting Germany to declare war on France. 2 The Historians’ View How could an assassination lead to all-out war in just a few weeks? Today, most historians agree that all parties must share blame. • Each of the great powers believed that its cause was just. • Once the machinery of war was set in motion, it seemed impossible to stop. • Although leaders made the decisions, most people on both sides were equally committed to military action. 3 The Western Front German forces swept through Belgium toward Paris. Russia mobilized more quickly than expected. Germany shifted some troops to the east to confront Russia, weakening German forces in the west. British / French troops defeat Germany in the 1st Battle of the Marne. The battle of the Marne pushed back the German offensive -destroyed Germany’s hopes for a quick victory on Western Front. The result was a long, deadly stalemate, a deadlock in which neither side is able to defeat the other. Battle lines in France remained almost unchanged for four years. 3 World War I Technology Modern weapons added greatly to the destructiveness of the war. Airplane A one- or two-seat propeller plane was equipped with a machine gun. At first the planes were used mainly for observation. Later, “flying aces” engaged in individual combat, though such “dogfights” had little effect on the war. Automatic machine gun A mounted gun that fired a rapid, continuous stream of bullets made it possible for a few gunners to mow down waves of soldiers. This helped create a stalemate by making it difficult to advance across no man’s land. Submarine These underwater ships, or U-boats, could launch torpedoes, or guided underwater bombs. Used by Germany to destroy Allied shipping, U-boat attacks helped bring the United States into the war. 3 How Did the War Become a Global Conflict? EASTERN EUROPE In August 1914, Russian armies pushed into eastern Germany. SOUTHERN EUROPE In 1915, Bulgaria joined the Central Powers and helped crush Serbia. After Russia was defeated in the battle of Tannenburg, armies in the east fought on Russian soil. OUTSIDE EUROPE Japan, allied with Britain, tried to impose a protectorate on China. The Ottoman empire joined the Central Powers in 1914. Arab nationalists revolted against Ottoman rule. THE COLONIES The Allies overran German colonies in Africa and Asia. The great powers turned to their own colonies for troops, laborers, and supplies. 4 Total War Warring nations engaged in total war, the channeling of a nation’s entire resources into a war effort. Economic impact • Both sides set up systems to recruit, arm, transport and supply huge fighting forces. • All nations except Britain imposed universal military conscription, or “the draft.” • Governments raised taxes, borrowed money, and rationed food and other products. Propaganda • Both sides waged a propaganda war. Propaganda is the spreading of ideas to promote a cause or to damage an opposing cause. 4 Women and War Women played a critical role in total war: • As men left to fight, women took over their jobs and kept national companies going. • Many women worked in war industries, manufacturing weapons and supplies. • Women grew food when shortages threatened. • Some women joined branches of the armed forces. • Women worked as nurses close to the front lines. 4 Collapsing Morale By 1917, the morale of both troops and civilians had plunged. • As morale collapsed, troops mutinied or deserted. • Long casualty lists, food shortages, and the failure of generals to win promised victories led to calls for peace. • In Russia, soldiers left the front to join in a full-scale revolution back home. Why Did the United States Enter the War? 4 • German submarines were attacking merchant and passenger ships carrying American citizens. In May 1915, a German submarine torpedoed the British liner Lusitania, killing 1,200 passengers, including 120 Americans. • Many Americans felt ties of culture and language to Britain and sympathized with France as another democracy. • In early 1917, the British intercepted a telegram sent by German foreign minister, Arthur Zimmerman. It revealed that, in exchange for Mexican support, Germany had offered to help Mexico reconquer New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona. 4 Campaign to Victory In 1917, The United States declared war on Germany. By 1918, about two million American soldiers had joined the Allies on the Western Front. The Germans launched a huge offensive, pushing the Allies back. The Allies launched a counteroffensive, driving German forces back across France and Germany. Germany sought an armistice, or agreement to end fighting, with the Allies. On November 11, 1918, the war ended. 4 Wilson’s Fourteen Points President Woodrow Wilson issued the Fourteen Points, a list of his terms for resolving World War I and future wars. He called for: • freedom of the seas • free trade • large-scale reductions of arms • an end to secret treaties • self-determination, or the right of people to choose their own form of government, for Eastern Europe • the creation of a “general association of nations” to keep the peace in the future 5 The Costs of War • More than 8.5 million people died. Twice that number had been wounded. • Famine threatened many regions. • Across the European continent, homes, farms, factories, roads, and churches had been shelled to rubble. • People everywhere were shaken and disillusioned. • Governments had collapsed in Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman empire. 5 Casualties of World War I France British empire Russia Italy United States Others Allies Deaths in Battle Wounded in Battle 1,357,800 908,371 1,700,000 462,391 50,585 502,421 4,266,000 2,090,212 4,950,000 953,886 205,690 342,585 Central Powers Germany Austria-Hungary Ottoman empire 1,808,546 922,500 325,000 4,247,143 3,620,000 400,000 5 The Paris Peace Conference The delegates to the Paris Peace Conference faced many difficult issues: • The Allied leaders had different aims. • The Italians insisted that the Allies honor their secret agreement to gain Austria-Hungary. Such secret agreements violated Wilson’s principle of selfdetermination. • Many people who had been ruled by Russia, Austria-Hungary, or the Ottoman empire now demanded national states of their own. The territories claimed by these people often overlapped, so it was impossible to satisfy them all. 5 The Treaty of Versailles The Treaty • • • • • • • forced Germany to assume full blame for causing the war. imposed huge reparations upon Germany. aimed at weakening Germany by limiting the size of the German military. returning Alsace and Lorraine to France. removing hundreds of miles of territory from Germany. stripping Germany of its overseas colonies. The Germans signed the treaty because they had no choice. But German resentment of the Treaty of Versailles would poison the international climate for 20 years and lead to an even deadlier world war. 5 Widespread Dissatisfaction Eastern Europe remained a center of conflict. Colonized peoples from Africa to the Middle East and across Asia were angry that self-determination was not applied to them. Italy was angry because it did not get all the lands promised in a secret treaty with the Allies. Japan was angry that western nations refused to honor its claims in China. Russia resented the reestablishment of a Polish nation and three Baltic states on lands that had been part of the Russian empire. 5 World War I: Cause and Effect Long-Term Causes Imperialist and economic rivalries among European powers European alliance system Militarism and arms race Nationalist tensions in Balkans Immediate Effects Enormous cost in lives and money Russian Revolution Creation of new nations in Eastern Europe Immediate Causes Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Fighting in the Balkans Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand German invasion of Belgium Long-Term Effects Economic impact of war debts on Europe Requirement that Germany pay reparations Emergence of United States and Japan as important powers German loss of its overseas colonies Growth of nationalism in colonies Balfour Declaration Rise of fascism League of Nations World War II Causes of World War I Alliances • Agreements among nations to aid each other if attacked • Russian agreements with smaller Slavic nations • Emergence of Allies • Emergence of Central Powers Nationalism • French revenge against Germany • French desire for return of Alsace and Lorraine • Pan-slavism in Eastern Europe • German pride in military power and industrial growth • Serbian desire to create south Slav state WORLD WAR I Militarism • Military power seen as symbol of national prestige • Glorification of war by all powers • Arms race among great powers • Influential military leaders • Belief in Social Darwinism Imperialism • British concern over German growth • British concern over German competition for colonies • Economic rivalries among Britain, Germany, and France • British and French desire to contain German territorial claims in Africa Revolution in Russia Economic Causes • Peasant majority • Food and fuel shortages • Striking workers • Inefficient transportation system Political Causes • Enormous losses in World War I • Autocracy • Weak and ineffectual rulers • Spread of Marxist ideas • Charismatic leaders, such as Lenin and Trotsky Social Causes • Extremes in classes • Deprivation resulting from World War I • Peasants' desire for land REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA