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Current Perspectives • • • • • • Psychoanalytic Behavioral Cognitive Biological Humanistic Others Evolutionary, Sociocultural, etc. Psychoanalytic Early 1900s Freud- Interpretations of Dreams (1900) • Behavior influenced by unconscious processes • Stressed early childhood experiences determine later behavior • Negative view of humanity (aggression, sex) Early Behaviorists Pavlov (1913)- Dog Salvation B. F. Skinner (1930s)- Skinner Box, rewards & punishments Watson (1925)- Little Albert Behaviorists (Skinner, Watson, Pavlov) • Environment determines behavior (clean slate) • Stimulus Response • Reinforcements and punishment • Studies observable (overt) behavior and stimuli, not concerned with internal states Humanistic • Carl Rogers founder (Maslow also important) • Emerged as a revolt against behaviorism & psychoanalytic approaches • Inherent Goodness of Human Beings • FREE WILL • Unconditional Positive Regard Rogers believed for a person to grow they need an environment that provides ‘genuineness’ (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to & understood). Without these, relationships and healthy personalities will not develop as they should – much like a tree will not grow without sunlight and water. Cognitive Thoughts Stimulus and mental processes Mental process Behavior Biological • Observable behavior given physiological explanations • Genetics, biochemical, neurological What School of Psychology? Just for practice. Write in NB • • • • • • • • • Primal drives Neurotransmitters Early childhood Mental processes Stimulus Free will Interpretation of events DNA Unconditional Positive Regard Psychologist vs. Psychiatrist vs. Counselor PSYCHOLOGISTS Masters (2 years) Doctoral (3-5 years) [PhD or PsyD (clinical)] Cannot prescribe drugs Types: Practitioners Academic Researchers COUNSELORS Master’s degree (MSW or MC) Works with less severe mental health problems Family, relationship, substance abuse, anxiety PSYCHIATRISTS Medical Doctor M.D. Medical school with internship in Psychiatry Can prescribe drugs Types of Psychologists • • • • • • • • • • • Clinical Counseling Social Experimental Physiological/Neurological Cognitive Developmental Psychometrics Industrial/Organizational Education/school Forensic The Experiment • Only research method capable of showing cause and effect Experimental Method • Review Literature of Past Research • Formulate Hypothesis • Design Research/Study Method (procedures, data collection technique, etc.) • Collect the Data • Analyze the Data • Report the Findings (journal, critique, replicate) • Draw Conclusion or Theory on Explanation of Findings Hypothesis • A statement about the relationship between two or more variables • Must be testable and refutable • Instead of proving the hypothesis, science usually tries to disprove a null hypothesis. Null Hypothesis (H0): opposite of hypothesis Hypothesis Example: Statistical Significance : 95% not due to chance H0: Gender does not have an effect on perceived intelligence H1: Gender has an effect on perceived intelligence Variables • Independent Variable (I.V.): manipulated by experimenter • Dependent Variable (D.V.): MEASURED variable influenced by independent • Operational definition • Confounding/extraneous variables Control Group • No treatment or placebo • Serves as basis for comparison • Serves to eliminate alternative explanations Population – The larger group of people from which a sample is drawn (who we are trying to test as a whole) Sample: selection of people from population we will conduct the experiment on/with Representative: Must be a good selection of the population, accurately representing who we are testing Random: Every member of the pop has = chance Stratified: Sample is put together by picking a group statistically equal to the population Control Measures • Counterbalance: controls for order effects • Single-Blind: subject unaware of assignment • Double-Blind: subject and experimenter unaware of placement • Randomization – From population (sample) – From assignment to groups (assignment) Correlation A statistical value of the relationship between two variables Positive Correlation As one number increases, the other increases. Ex: Study time to GPA Negative Correlation As one number increases, the other decreases. Ex: Absences to GPA No Correlation Variables do not affect one another in a significant way Ex: Height to GPA Correlation Coefficient • Ranges from -1.00 to 1.00 • Zero is no relationship • -0.85 is a stronger relationship than .34 CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION!! (i.e. Just because two variables have a correlation does not mean one causes the other) Statistics A branch of applied mathematics that uses numbers to describe and analyze information on a subject Descriptive Statistics Organize and summarize data Central Tendency: mean, median, mode Standard deviation: variation in data Range: distance from smallest to largest Inferential Statistics Interpret data and draw conclusions Used to test validity of hypothesis Statistical Significance Statistical Analysis allows us to show that results found in our experiment were likely not just a coincidence. If we say results are “statistically significant” that means results are probably not due to chance. Inferential statistics are used to check for either a 5% or 1% level of significance. 5% : chances are 1 in 20 that the results were due to a coincidence and not I.V. 1% : chances are 1 in 100 that the results were due to a coincidence and not I.V. Statistically, Lottery tickets: 14, 3, 27, 41, 18 or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 they are Coin flips: HHHHHHH or HHTHTHT equally likely to occur!! Which is more likely to occur? Standard Deviation When looking at data it is not sufficient to describe only the central tendency, but also how ‘spread out’ the scores are from the mean… Bell Curve or Normal Curve 68% are within One standard deviation from mean 95% are within Two standard deviations from mean Skews Other Research Methods Ex Post Facto (after the fact) - Independent variable already present - Not a true independent variable, no cause and effect - Often used due to ethical concerns Naturalistic Observation - Natural setting: behavior is not interfered with or altered Survey Method - Gathers data on attitudes and behaviors. Case Study - Intense study of an individual Evaluating Research STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF Experiment Correlation Surveys Naturalistic Observation Case Studies Ways to Study the Brain CT “cat” Scan: Computerized Axial Tomography MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging fMRI: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging PET Scan: Positron Emission Tomography Scan EEG: Electroencephalograph Neurons – What are they? • The basic building block of the nervous system -- a nerve cell • Neurons perform three basic tasks – Receive – Carry electrochemical information – Pass on to the next neuron The brain is made up of approximately ________ 100 billion neurons. Neurons – How do they work? • Neurons “fire” - send an impulse down their length - or they don’t “fire” • Neurons come in a variety of shapes, sizes, etc. • Types: - Sensory Neurons (or afferent) - Motor Neurons (or efferent) - Interneurons- Over 90%, connects nerves Parts of the Neuron - Terminals Neuron Communication Action Potential • A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of the neuron. • A neural impulse • Considered an “on” condition of the neuron Neuron Communication Refractory Period • The “recharging phase” when a neuron, after firing, cannot generate another action potential Neurotransmitters A chemical messenger that travels across the synapse from one neuron to the next Can influence whether the second neuron will generate an action potential or not Researchers have discovered hundreds of substances known to function as neurotransmitters …they help promote sleep, alertness, learning and memory, motivation and emotions …they can also influence or cause psychological disorders including depression & schizophrenia Neurotransmitters Agonist: Mimics the action of a NT Antagonist: Opposes the action of a NT Endorphins: elevate pleasure/mood and reduce pain, act by either increasing or decreasing specific NT activity, mimic effects of opium based drugs like morphine Select Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine (Ach) – Involved in muscle movement and memory low: Alzheimer’s Serotonin – Involved in mood and sleep low: Depression Dopamine – Involved in movement and reward systems low: Parkinson‘s, high: Schizophrenia GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) – Inhibitory NT can help decrease anxiety Norepinephrine – Involved in arousal, mood, and sympathetic nervous system activation Bipolar (low: Depression, high: Manic) Opioids – Involved in pathways that reduce pain Endocrine System A second type of communication system in the body made up of a network of glands • Hypothalamus signals to the pituitary • Pituitary signals other glands of the endocrine system to secrete hormones • Examples of hormones: – – – – Estrogen/testosterone Thyroid growth hormone follicle-stimulating hormone Divisions of the Nervous System The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System Anatomy of the Brain • Hindbrain – Cerebellum: coordination of movement and postural reflex – Medulla: controls vegetative function – Pons: sleep and wake-fullness • Midbrain – Reticular Formation: oversees arousal and attentional processes • Forebrain – Limbic System - controls emotions and memory Thalamus: primary relay station for the senses (except smell) Hypothalamus: motivation and emotional drives Amygdala: emotions & memory Hippocampus: forming new memories – Cerebral Cortex: Lobes of brain, upper, wrinkled area – Corpus Collusum: nerve cells connecting the hemispheres of the brain Structures of Brain Diagram Hindbrain Structures • Cerebellum • Brainstem – medulla – reticular formation – pons Forebrain’s Limbic System • • • • Thalamus Hypothalamus Amygdala Hippocampus Cerebral Cortex pic Cerebral Cortex • Frontal Lobes – decision making, speech, abstract thought, emotional control • Temporal Lobes – critical for hearing & balance – important in memory • Occipital Lobes – responsible for visual processes • Parietal Lobes – receives sensory information Language and the Brain • Aphasia — partial or complete inability to articulate ideas or understand language because of brain injury or damage • Broca’s area —speech production -located in the left frontal lobe • Wernike’s area — plays role understanding speech -located in the left temporal lobe Definitions • Sensation – process of detecting, converting, and transmitting raw sensory information from the external and internal environments to the brain Sense organs: eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin, & internal body organs • Perception – process of selecting, organizing and interpreting sensory information – enables us to recognize meaningful objects and events Happens in the brain! Sensation • Bottom-Up Processing Ex: you have – Information processing beginning “at the bottom” ingredients and with raw sensory data that are sent “up” to the brain must put them for higher level analysis together to make – Data driven processing that moves from the parts to something edible the whole • Top-Down Processing Ex: you have ingredients and – Information processing starting “at the top” with picture of a higher level cognitive processes (such as completed cake expectations and knowledge) and then “working and you must down” recreate the – Conceptually driven processing that moves from the cake whole to the parts Sensation- Basic Principles • Psychophysics – study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them – Light: brightness – Sound: volume – Pressure: weight – Taste: sweetness Sensation- Thresholds • Absolute Threshold – minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus – usually defined as the stimulus needed for detection 50% of the time Ex: listen to headphones and indicate the earliest you hear a tone • Difference Threshold – minimum difference between two stimuli that a subject can detect 50% of the time – just noticeable difference (JND) – increases with magnitude Ex: listen to headphones and indicate when you hear a change in volume of sound Easier to tell the difference between 4 & 5Hz than 1000 & 1001Hz Sensation- Thresholds 100 Percentage of correct detections • When stimuli are detectable less than 50% of the time 75 (below one’s absolute threshold) they are 50 Subliminal stimuli 25 0 Low Absolute threshold Intensity of stimulus Medium “subliminal”. Sensation- Thresholds • Weber’s Law- to perceive a difference between two stimuli, they must differ by a constant proportion – light intensity- 8% – weight- 2% – tone frequency- 0.3% Apply it! Come up • Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity with with 3 constant stimulation (habituation) examples - receptors higher up in sensory system get tired and fire less frequently Sensation- Thresholds • Signal Detection Theory – predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise) – assumes that there is no single absolute threshold – detection depends partly on person’s -experience -expectations -motivation -level of fatigue Vision Did you know major league batters can hit a 90 miles per hour fastball 4/10 of a second after it leaves the pitcher’s hand? • Transduction: conversion of one form of energy to another • Wavelength: the distance from the peak of one wave to the peak of the next • Hue: dimension of color determined by wavelength of light • Intensity: amount of energy in a wave determined by amplitude – brightness – loudness Vision: Physical Properties of Waves Short wavelength=high frequency (bluish colors, high-pitched sounds) Great amplitude (bright colors, loud sounds) Long wavelength=low frequency (reddish colors, low-pitched sounds) Small amplitude (dull colors, soft sounds) Purity: saturation, timbre Vision: Parts of the Eye Vision: Parts of the Eye • Cornea: transparent covering on the front of the eye • Pupil: adjustable opening in the center of the eye • Iris: a ring of muscle the forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening • Lens: transparent structure behind pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina Accommodation: change in shape of lens focus near objects • Retina – Layers of neurons on inner surface of eye – light sensitive – contains rods and cones – beginning of visual information processing Blind Spot: area of retina where optic nerve leaves back of eye • Fovea: central point of focus on the back of the eye Retina’s Reaction to Light Receptors Rods • Located in periphery of retina • detect black, white and gray • twilight or low light Cones – near center of retina (fovea) – fine detail and color vision – daylight or well-lit conditions Receptors in the Human Eye Cones Rods Number 6 million 120 million Location in retina Center Periphery Sensitivity in dim light Low High Color sensitive? Yes No Visual Information Processing • Feature Detectors – Specialized neurons in the visual cortex respond to specific features – shape – angle – movement • Parallel Processing – simultaneous processing of several dimensions through multiple pathways – color – motion – form – depth Visual Information Processing • Trichromatic (three color) Theory – Young and Helmholtz – The eye contains three different types of cones capable of responding to various wavelengths of light • red • green • blue Visual Information Processing Opponent-Process Theory: opposing retinal processes enable color vision “ON” “OFF” red green green red blue yellow yellow blue black white white black The 2 Theories Visual Perception: Gestalt Gestalt Principles (gestalt = an organized whole) We tend to integrate pieces of info. into meaningful wholes – Proximity – Closure – Similarity – Simplicity (law of good form) – Continuity – Common Region – Connectedness – Phi Phenom (perceive movement) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lilac-Chaser.gif http://www1.psych.purdue.edu/Magniphi/MagniPhi.html Visual Perception: Depth – Depth Perception: The Visual Cliff – Binocular Cues: clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes • Retinal Disparity: the fact that the right and left eyes see slightly different views of the object • Convergence: the degree to which the two eyes must converge to focus on the object – Monocular Cues: clues about distance based on the image in either eye • • • • • • Linear Perspective: parallel lines converge in the distance Relative Size: if two objects are the same, the larger one is seen as closer Interposition: the nearer object overlaps the object farther in the distance Texture Gradient: textures are coarser the closer they are Light and shadow: brighter objects seem closer Height in plane: objects higher up seem farther away – Audition Audition (Hearing) • the sense of hearing – Frequency • the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (Hz) – Pitch • a tone’s highness or lowness • depends on frequency The Stimulus • Vibrations of sound waves – Amplitude: loudness – Wavelength: pitch – Purity: timbre Audition: The Ear • Outer Ear (pinna) – Auditory Canal – Eardrum (tympanic membrane) • Middle Ear (ossicles) – hammer – anvil – stirrup • Inner Ear – – – – oval window cochlea basilar membrane hair cells (cilia) Audition: Pitch Perception • Place Theory – the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated • Frequency Theory – the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch How We Locate Sounds • Localization of Sound – Sound is heard in the nearest ear first – Sound is heard loudest in the nearest ear • Skin Sensations Touch – pressure • only skin sensation with identifiable receptors – warmth (if something is ‘hot’ both warm and cold receptors are activated simultaneously) – cold – pain Numerous types of receptors lie in varying depths in the skin Pain • Gate-Control Theory – Theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain – “gate” opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers – “gate” closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain • Taste Sensations – – – – – Taste sweet sour salty bitter Umami • Sensory Interaction – the principle that one sense may influence another – as when the smell of food influences its taste • The Stimuli: chemical substances that are soluble • The Anatomy: taste buds act as the receptors for taste (about every two weeks) • Perception of taste & flavor – Numerous factors can impact the flavor of food (Ex: temperature of the food, texture, prior condition of the mouth, health state of the organism, smell) Smell (Olfaction) • The Stimuli: chemical substances that are soluble • The Anatomy: receptors are olfactory cilia which lie on the roof of the nasal passage and sinus • Sense DOES NOT get filtered by thalamus • Taste and smell interact to produce flavor Smell Consciousness • Definition: An individual’s perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and memories that are active at a given moment. Or “an organism’s awareness of its own self and surroundings” • Awareness of: » Internal sensations » External events » Self as a unique being » Thoughts and experiences • Characteristics: Personal and subjective, occurring on a continuum, and changing all the time. • Alternate States of Consciousness (ASC): includes sleep, dreaming, chemically induced, daydreaming, etc. Conscious/Unconscious Continuum • Conscious – Info. about yourself and environment currently aware of now • Nonconscious – Body processes not aware of like heartbeat, respiration, digestion • Preconscious – Available memories (unconscious at a certain moment but capable of being recalled) • Subconscious – Ignore, select and reject incoming stimuli – Ex: clock chiming the hour • Unconscious – Freudian slips, repressed memories, dreams, being in a coma, anesthesia • Divided Consciousness – Ability to do two things at once – Controlled vs. requires focused attention that generally does interfere with ongoing activities (being so involved in a test don’t realize time passing) Automatic Processes à requires minimal attention and generally does not interfere with other ongoing activities (experienced driver driving a car) Rhythms in Humans • Yearly - seasonal variations in appetite, sleep length, moods ….Seasonal Affective Disorder 28 day - female menstrual cycle 90 minute - we cycle through various stages of sleep • 24 hour - Circadian Rhythms: alertness, body temp, growth hormone secretion Latin: circa means “about” and diem “day” • What happens if no external cues? 25-hour cycle • Jet lag West to East Phase advance East to West Phase delay • Sleep Deprivation: form of torture, stress, after about 72 hours, slip unwillingly into brief, repeated periods of “microsleep”