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Toward World War II Some questions: • A separate conflict or part of a 31 year conflict? • Was World War II avoidable? Collective Security in the Interwar Period • The League of Nations: – Possibility of sanctions and collective action against aggressors • Locarno Pacts (1925) – Signatories: France, Belgium, Britain, Germany, Italy; also Poland, Czechoslovakia ) – Acceptance of Versailles frontiers – Guarantees of non-aggression – Provision for arbitration, mutual assistance • French alliances with countries surrounding Germany • Conferences among great powers • Map of Europe between the World Wars Emasculation of the League • Manchurian Crisis, 1931 – Japan invades Manchuria • Withdraws from League • League takes no action • Abyssinian Crisis (1935) – Italy invades Abyssinia (Ethiopia) – Abyssinia appeals to League – League fails to act (France, courting Italy, is reluctant) Remilitarization of the Rhineland,1936 • Britain condemns, but without threat of action • France protests • Matter taken to League Council, Hague tribunal – no response • France unwilling to take action – Internally divided, pre-occupied with domestic concerns – Under caretaker cabinet, pending new elections • Germany offers non-aggression pacts Spanish Civil War (1936-39) • Spanish Republic (est. 1931) increasingly polarized between left and right • Right rebels as left gains ascendancy – receives assistance from Italy and Germany • Republicans receive assistance from USSR • France and Britain urge non-intervention – committee established: decisions not enforced • Effect: Italy ends up more closely aligned with Germany Rome-Berlin Axis - 1936 • Italy recognizes German position in Central Europe • Germany recognizes Italy’s position in the Mediterranean • Both join in anti-Bolshevik crusade • Supplemented by German-Japanese AntiComintern pact Emerging situation: 1936-1938 • Versailles Treaty effectively dead • Germany rearming, growing stronger • France increasingly alarmed – system of alliances more and more uncertain – Aligned with Britain, forced to follow its lead • USSR – Has previously signed treaties with Germany, 1922 – More recently with France (1934) but neither considers the other reliable Britain’s position • Re-arming but reluctant to fight • Neville Chamberlain as prime minister, 1936 • Anxious to assert European leadership • Willing to recognize new power configuration – Thus accommodate `reasonable’ demands – Allow ‘adjustments’ to borders Anchsluss with Austria, 1938 • Italy pre-occupied, abandons objections • Austrian Nazis undermine government • German demands bring Austrian Nazi leader Seyss-Inquart to power • Seyss-Inquart request for assistance brings German troops • Austria annexed, result endorsed in plebiscite • Other powers fail to object Sudetenland and the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia map • multinational state -- created by Versailles – German minority in Sudetenland (3 million out of 13 million) • Disaffected – demand autonomy, changes in gov’t policy • Increased Nazi agitation • Czech independence guaranteed by treaties with France, Russia, Yugoslavia, Romania The crisis • Hitler demands self-determination for Sudetenland • Chamberlain meets with Hitler at Berchtesgaden (15 Sept. 1938), gains delay • Czech gov’t concede self-determination in exchange for British & French guarantees • Hitler increases demands at subsequent meeting at Godesberg – – – – Immediate annexation of Sudetenland Plebiscites in other German-speaking areas Polish and Hungarian claims to be met Acceptance by Sept. 28th • Czechs reject, mobilize • British and French mobilize Munich Hitler, Mussolini, Chamberlain, Daladier meet on 29 Sept. at Mussolini’s suggestion • Agree to – German annexation of Sudetenland, Oct. 10th – Plebiscites in other minority areas – British and French to guarantee new frontiers • Czechoslovakia told to accept or fight alone Chamberlain’s position • Apparent sincere desire to engage Hitler • Show that ‘legitimate’ claims could be achieved by diplomacy • Leader of a country which was – Not necessarily willing to fight for a distant land – Unready to do so Problems with this: • Hitler was not a ‘reasonable’ opponent • Nor necessarily appeased • Munich agreement surrenders defensible borders • Using Slovak demands as pretext, Hitler declares that Czechoslovakia has ceased to exist • Prague invaded, March 15, 1939 • Britain declares guarantees invalid because Czechoslovakia has disintegrated Outbreak of war: • In the aftermath, Britain signs treaties guaranteeing independence Poland, Romania, Greece, Turkey • Germany begins making demands on Poland (increased access across Polish corridor • Germany and USSR sign non-aggression pact • Germany makes demands on Poland • Invades, Sept. 1, 1939 on pretext of faked Polish attack • Britain and France demand withdrawal, declare war • USSR attacks Poland from the east, Sept. 17th Some final considerations • Absence of effective international institutions • Absence of stable balance of power – Britain and France unable to engage USSR against Germany: • Problem of Poland • Problem of mutual mistrust – Fail to enlist Italy against Germany • Fundamental misperception of German aims by the British