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Radiation from space Light from the Past • Although light travels fast, distances between objects in space are so great that it sometimes takes millions of years for the light to reach Earth. • Light travels at 300,000 km/s in a vacuum-this is the speed of light. • The light and other energy leaving a star are forms of radiation\ • Radiation is energy that is transmitted from one place to another by electromagnetic waves. • Electromagnetic waves carry energy through empty space and through matter. Electromagnetic Radiation • When astronauts speak into a microphone, the sound waves are converted into electromagnetic waves called radio waves. • The radio waves travel through space and through Earth’s atmosphere. Electromagnetic Radiation • Radio waves and visible light from the Sun are just two types of electromagnetic radiation. • Other types include gamma rays, X rays, ultraviolet waves, infrared waves, and microwaves. Electromagnetic Radiation • This arrangement of electromagnetic radiation is called the electromagnetic spectrum. • Forms of electromagnetic radiation also differ in their frequencies • Frequency is the number of wave crests that pass a given point per unit of time Optical Telescopes • Optical telescopes use light to produce magnified images of objects. • Light is collected by an objective lens or mirror, which then forms an image at the focal point of the telescope. • The eyepiece lens then magnifies the image. Optical Telescopes • A refracting telescope uses convex lenses, which are curved outward like the surface of a ball. • Light from an object passes through a convex objective lens and is bent to form an image at the focal point. Optical Telescopes • A reflecting telescope uses a curved mirror to direct light. Optical Telescopes • Light strikes a concave mirror, which is curved inward like a bowl and located at the base of the telescope. • The light is reflected off the interior surface of the bowl to the focal point where it forms an image. Using Optical Telescopes • Most optical telescopes used by professional astronomers are housed in buildings called observatories. • Observatories often have domeshaped roofs that can be opened up for viewing. Hubble Space Telescope • The Hubble Space Telescope was launched in 1990 by the space shuttle Discovery. • In December 1993, a team of astronauts repaired the Hubble Space Telescope by installing a set of small mirrors designed to correct images obtained by the faulty mirror. Hubble Space Telescope • Two more missions to service Hubble were carried out in 1997 and 1999. • Among the objects viewed by Hubble after it was repaired in 1999 was a large cluster of galaxies known as Abell 2218. Large Reflecting Telescopes • The twin Keck reflecting telescopes have segmented mirrors 10 m wide. • Until 2000, these mirrors were the largest reflectors ever used. Large Reflecting Telescopes • In 2000, the European Southern Observatory’s telescope, in Chile, consisted of four 8.2-m reflectors, making it the largest optical telescope in use. Active and Adaptive Optics • With active optics, a computer corrects for changes in temperature, mirror distortions, and bad viewing conditions. • Adaptive optics uses a laser to probe the atmosphere and relay information to a computer about air turbulence. • In 2000, the European Southern Telescope images are clearer when corrections for air turbulence, temperature changes, and mirror-shape changes are made. Radio Telescopes • A radio telescope is used to study radio waves traveling through space. • Unlike visible light, radio waves pass freely through Earth’s atmosphere. • Because of this, radio telescopes are useful 24 hours per day under most weather conditions. Radio Telescopes • Radio waves reaching Earth’s surface strike the large, concave dish of a radio telescope. • This dish reflects the waves to a focal point where a receiver is located. Early Space Missions To break free of gravity and enter Earth’s orbit, spacecraft must travel at speeds greater than 11 km/s. Rockets are engines that have everything they need for the burning of fuel. The fuel which they use does not require oxygen to burn, which was one of the biggest challenges in the beginning. Types of Rockets-based on fuel Solid-propellant rockets are generally simpler but they can’t be shut down after they are ignited. Solid-propellant rockets use a rubberlike fuel that contains its own oxidizer. As the solid propellant burns, hot gases exert pressure on all inner surfaces of the tube. The tube pushes back on the gas except at the nozzle where hot gases escape. Thrust builds up and pushes the rocket forward. Solid Propellant rockets Liquid Propellant Rockets Liquid-propellant rockets use a liquid fuel and an oxidizer, such as liquid oxygen stored in separate tanks. To ignite the rocket, the oxidizer is mixed with the liquid fuel in the burning chamber. As the mixture burns, forces are exerted and the rocket is propelled forward Dr. Werner von Braun Leader of Nazi rocketry research Inventor of the V-2 Rocket War criminal? Victim of Nazi “scorched Earth”? American hero? I have learned to use the word "impossible“ with the greatest caution.” Slated for execution to prevent capture by the Allies A “prize” for which the Russians and Americans competed Surrendered to Americans Became the “father” of the U.S. space program Satellites A satellite is any object that revolves around another object The result of the satellite traveling forward while at the same time being pulled toward Earth is a curved path, called an orbit. The moon is a natural satellite Today, thousands of artificial satellites orbit Earth. Communication satellites transmit radio and television programs to locations around the world, others collect data Sputnik – October 4, 1957 “October Sky” •The space age began when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the first artificial satellite to orbit Earth. Space Probes • A space probe is an instrument that gathers information and sends it back to Earth. • Unlike satellites that orbit Earth, space probes travel into the solar system. • Some even have traveled to the edge of the solar system. • Space probes, like many satellites, carry cameras and other data-gathering equipment, as well as radio transmitters and receivers that allow them to communicate with scientists on Earth. Voyager and Pioneer Probes • Space probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 were launched in 1977 and now are heading toward deep space. • Voyager 1 flew past Jupiter and Saturn. • Voyager 2 flew past Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. • Scientists expect these probes to continue to transmit data to Earth for at least 20 more years. • Pioneer 10, launched in 1972, was the first probe to survive a trip through the asteroid belt and encounter an outer planet, Jupiter. • The probe carries a gold medallion with an engraving of a man, a woman, and Earth’s position in the galaxy. Galileo • Launched in 1989, Galileo reached Jupiter in 1995. • Galileo released a smaller probe that began a five-month approach to Jupiter. • Before being crushed by the atmospheric pressure, it transmitted information about Jupiter’s composition, temperature, and pressure to the satellite orbiting above. Galileo • Studies of Jupiter’s moon Europa by Galileo indicate than an ocean of water may exist under the surface of Europa. • A cracked outer layer of ice makes up Europa’s surface. Galileo • The cracks in the surface may be caused by geologic activity that heats the ocean underneath the surface. • Sunlight penetrates these cracks, further heating the ocean and setting the stage for the possible existence of life on Europa. Galileo • In October and November of 1999, Galileo approached Io, another one of Jupiter’s moons. It took photographs of a volcanic vent named Loki. • Galileo also discovered eruption plumes that shoot gas made of sulfur and oxygen. En Route Space Probes Rosetta, launched after several delays and mission changes, is currently on an intercept course with the comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko. It will deploy a lander for further investigation after reaching it. Launched: 2 March 2004 | Destination: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko | Arrival: May 2014 | Institution: ESALander Probe: PhilaeNew Horizons will be the first spacecraft to study Pluto, and ultimately the Kuiper Belt. It is the fastest artificially-accelerated object and will be the fifth probe to leave the solar system. Launched: 19 January 2006 | Destination: Pluto, Charon | Arrival: July 2015 | Institution: NASAJuno is en route to Jupiter and upon arrival will enter a polar orbit around the gas giant. Launched: 5 August 2011 | Destination: Jupiter | Arrival: 2016 | Institution: NASAMangalyaan is the first Indian interplanetary space probe. Launched: 5 November 2013 | Destination: Mars | Arrival: September 2014 | Institution: ISROMAVEN — Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution. Launched: 18 November 2013 | Destination: Mars | Arrival: September 2014 | Institution: NASA Mission In Progress The Cassini orbiter began studying Saturn and its moons after passing Venus and Jupiter and deploying the Huygens landing probe to Titan. It is primarily investigating Saturn's rings, its magnetosphere, and the geologic composition of its satellites; the mission may potentially continue until 2017. Launched: 15 October 1997 | Destination: Saturn | Arrival: 1 July 2004 | Institution: NASA + ESA + ASILander Probe: Huygens [mission complete]2001 Mars Odyssey, a tribute to the classic novel and film, is one of three currently active human-made Mars satellites. It is continuing its extended mission to map the surface of Mars and also acts as a relay for the Curiosity andOpportunity rovers. [1] Launched: 7 April 2001 | Destination: Mars | Arrival: 24 October 2001 | Institution: NASAMars Express: Mars orbiter designed to study the planet's atmosphere and geology, search for sub surface water, and deploy the Beagle lander. Mission extended until at least 31 December 2014. [2] Launched: 2 June 2003 | Destination: Mars | Arrival: 25 December 2003 | Institution: ESALander: Beagle 2 [mission failed; contact lost at landing]MESSENGER is studying Mercury. It is only the second probe to do so and is the first to orbit the planet. Technologically, it is far superior to its 1975 predecessor, Mariner 10. Having previously passed Earth once, Venus twice and Mercury three times, it entered orbit in March 2011. Launched: 4 August 2004 | Destination: Mercury | Arrival: 18 March 2011 | Institution: NASALander: Opportunity Rover landed on Meridiani Planum. Expected to last 90 Martian days (sols), it continues to function effectively after 3607 sols. Its twin, Spirit Rover, explored an area on the other side of the planet, but became stuck in soft soil May 1, 2009, and communication was lost March 22, 2010 (sol 2210). Launched: 10 June 2003 | Destination: Mars | Arrival: 25 January 2004 | Institution: NASAMars Reconnaissance Orbiter is the second NASA satellite orbiting Mars. It is specifically designed to analyze the landforms, stratigraphy, minerals, and ice of the red planet. Launched: 12 August 2005 | Destination: Mars | Arrival: 10 March 2006 | Institution: NASAVenus Express, modeled after the Mars Express, is collecting data on the Venusian atmosphere and cloud conditions. Mission extended until at least 31 December 2014. [3] Launched: 9 November 2005 | Destination: Venus | Arrival: 11 April 2006 | Institution: ESADawn successfully entered asteroid Vesta's orbit in July 2011. There it studied Vesta until September 2012, when it departed for dwarf planet Ceres with expected arrival in 2015. Launched: 27 September 2007 | Destination: Vesta | Vesta arrival: 16 July 2011 |Left Vesta: 5 September 2012 | Destination: Ceres | Arrival: February 2015 | Institution: NASALunar Reconnaissance Orbiter is engaged in lunar mapping intended to identify safe landing sites, locate potential resources on the Moon, characterize the radiation environment, and demonstrate new technology. Launched: 18 June 2009 | Destination: Moon | Arrival: 23 June 2009 | Institution: NASAARTEMIS P1/P2 are studying the effect of the solar wind on the Moon. Originally launched as Earth satellites, they were later repurposed and moved to lunar orbit. Launched: February 17, 2007 | Destination: Moon | Arrival: July 2011 | Institution: NASALander: Curiosity rover is searching for evidence of organic material on Mars, monitoring methane levels in the atmosphere, and engaging in exploration of the landing site at Gale Crater. Launched: 26 November 2011 | Destination: Mars | Arrival: 6 August 2012 | Institution: NASALADEE is studying dust in the Moon's vicinity. Launched: 7 September 2013 | Destination: Moon | Arrival: October 2013 | Institution: NASALander: Chang'e 3 — first Chinese Moon lander and rover. Launched: 1 December 2013 | Destination: Moon | Arrival: 14 December 2013 | Institution: CNSA Mission Complete w/new in progress Voyager 1 is currently the farthest man-made object from Earth, as well as the first object to leave the Solar System, and cross into interstellar space. As of November 2013 it lies about 126 astronomical units (AU) from the sun [4](18.9 billion kilometers, or 0.002 light years), and it will not be overtaken by any other current craft. It was originally tasked with investigating Jupiter and Saturn, and the moons of these planets. Its continuing data feed offers the first direct measurements of the heliosheath and may eventually provide data on the heliopause. It is hoped that Voyager 1 will continue operating until at least 2020. Launched: 5 September 1977 | Destination: Jupiter & Saturn | Arrival: January 1979 | Institution: NASAPrimary Mission Completion: November, 1980 | Current Trajectory: bound for heliopauseVoyager 2 has not yet left the solar system, but will become one of the first five probes to do so eventually. Its mission to study all four gas giants was one of NASA's most successful, yielding a wealth of new information. As of November 2013 it is some 103 AU from the sun, [4] and it is hoped that it will continue to operate until at least 2020. As with Voyager 1, scientists are now using Voyager 2 to learn what the solar system is like beyond the heliosphere. Launched: 20 August 1977 | Destination: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune | Arrival: 9 July 1979 | Institution: NASAPrimary Mission Completion: August 1989 | Current Trajectory: bound for heliosheath M.C. with new mission in consideration ISEE-3's original mission was to study the solar wind; later, redesignated ICE, it flew by Comet Giacobini-Zinner. Since January 1990, it was in a 355-day heliocentric orbit. Deactivated on 1997-05-05 leaving only a carrier signal, it was reactivated on 2008-09-18. NASA began considering using the spacecraft to observe additional comets in 2017 or 2018. [5] No decision has been reached on the future use of the spacecraft. If no future uses are made, the spacecraft could be captured and given to the Smithsonian Institution later in 2014. [6] Reuse of the spacecraft would delay the possible capture until the 2040s. Launched: 12 August 1978 | Destination: L2 point | Arrival: ? | Institutions: NASA + ESAMission Completion: 1982 | Current Trajectory: heliocentric orbit, 355-day periodAkatsuki would have been the first Japanese Venusian probe. Also known as Planet-C and Venus Climate Orbiter, Akatsuki failed to enter Venusian orbit in December 2010. It is still functioning, and has a possible second chance to orbit Venus in 2015. [7] Launched: 20 May 2010 | Destination: Venus | Arrival: 2015 | Institution: JAXASubprobes: IKAROS and Shin'en M.C. w/no new mission planned Pioneer 6, launched in 1965, is the oldest functioning probe (if still operating). Contact was last attempted 8 December 2000 to celebrate its thirty-fifth anniversary, and the attempt was successful. [8] Like the three craft which superseded it, it took measurements of the solar wind, solar magnetic field and cosmic rays. Launched: 16 December 1965 | Destination: heliocentric orbit | Institution: NASAMission Completion: ? | Current Trajectory: heliocentric orbitPioneer 7 was last contacted 31 March 1995; no attempt has been made since, and this probe may or may not be operational. Launched: 17 August 1966 | Destination: heliocentric orbit | Institution: NASAMission Completion: ? | Current Trajectory: heliocentric orbitPioneer 8 was last contacted in 22 August 1996; no attempt has been made since, and this probe may or may not be operational. Launched: 8 November 1967 | Destination: heliocentric orbit | Institution: NASAMission Completion: ? | Current Trajectory: heliocentric orbitGiotto approached within 600 kilometers of Halley's Comet on its flyby mission, and survived some particulate impact on the inbound flight to capture scientific data and stunning images of the comet's nucleus. Its multicolor camera was subsequently destroyed, but the probe remained otherwise functional. Its mission completed, deactivation commands were transmitted on 15 March 1986. Awakened four years later on 2 July, it studied the comet GriggSkjellerup as it approached within 200 kilometers eight days later, and was again deactivated on the 23rd. Launched: 2 July 1985 | Destination: Comet Halley | Arrival: 14 March 1986 | Institution: ESAMission Completion: 14 March 1986 | Current Trajectory: heliocentric orbitGenesis returned a capsule with a solar wind sample to Earth in 2004. The rest of the probe was put into a parking orbit near Earth's L2 point. Launched: 8 August 2001 | Destination: complex orbit | Arrival: ? | Institution: NASAMission Completion: 2004 | Current Trajectory: heliocentric orbit near Earth L2 pointRecently ended[edit] Sputnik On 4 October 1957, the USSR successfully launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth Sputnik caused fear and stirred political debate in the United States and the formation of NASA The satellite questioned US technological superiority The National Defense Education Act was passed by Eisenhower in order to strengthen the defenses of the country Sputnik helped to determine the density of the upper atmosphere Space Race The space race began when the Soviet Union placed Sputnik into orbit. The U.S. and the Soviet Union were not on friendly terms in the 1950’s and early 1960’s. If the USSR could place a satellite into orbit, they would be able to bomb the United States. Space Race At first the Soviet Union was ahead of the United States in space exploration, but the United States would be the first and only country ( to this day) to place humans on the moon. There were six manned Apollo flights that landed men (12 total) on the moon. Formation of NASA Founded 1958 after Congress passed the National Aeronautics and Space Act Formed in direct response to the launch of Sputnik Purpose to provide organization and direction of U.S. space program First missions focused on getting humans into space, studying effects of space on humans, and returning astronauts safely to Earth Competitors in the Space Race United States Soviet Union After the launch of Sputnik, the U.S. and U.S.S.R. were in direct competition to have most advanced space program Viewed as contest between communism and capitalism National pride and fears for national defense played large roles in motivating space race Satellite 1958 Alpha – Explorer I The US answer to the Soviet Sputnik Launched on January 31, 1958 Explorer I flight data led to the discovery by James Van Allen of the Van Allen radiation belt Animals in Space Laika was the first animal that traveled into space in the USSR's Sputnik 2 in 1957. She died of stress and overheating soon after reaching space In 1960 Russian space dogs Belka and Strelka orbited the earth and successfully returned The American space program imported chimpanzees from Africa, and sent at least two into space before launching their first human orbiter Soviet-launched turtles in 1968 on Zond 5 became the first animals to fly around the Moon Ham the Chimp The first flight took place on January 31, 1961. Ham the chimp experienced 6.6 minutes of weightlessness during the survived the 16 1/2 minute space flight in his Mercury MR-2 space capsule. He reached an altitude of 157 miles and a speed of 5857 mph. Humans in Space The Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space when he entered orbit in Russia's Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, a day now celebrated as a holiday in Russia and in many other countries Alan Shepard first entered sub-orbital space for the U.S 23 days after Gagarin John Glenn became the first American to successfully orbit Earth, completing three orbits on February 20, 1962 Soviet Valentin Tereshkova became the first woman in space on June 16, 1963 in Vostok 6 Aleksei Leonov carried out the first spacewalk. This mission nearly ended in disaster, because Leonov almost failed to return to the capsule and due to a poor retrorocket fire the ship landed 1600 km off target. First American in Space Alan Shepard becomes the first American astronaut to enter space, aboard the Freedom 7 spacecraft, on May 5, 1961 Alan and his spacecraft, Freedom 7 The Mercury Project NASA’s first mission Mission goals: • getting an astronaut into space • completing an orbit • returning astronaut to Earth safely Several preliminary Mercury launches were unmanned The Mercury - Atlas I spacecraft Enos the chimpanzee, crew of the Mercury – Atlas V spacecraft The Gemini Project Involved sending two astronauts into orbit for longer periods of time Astronaut Ed White, II The rendezvous of the Gemini VI and Gemini VII spacecraft Paved the way and tested equipment for the Apollo missions to the moon Astronaut Ed White, II performs the first spacewalk by an American during the Gemini IV mission President Kennedy’s Challenge May 21, 1961: President Kennedy challenged the United States to land astronauts on the moon and to return them safely to Earth Challenge provided a “finish line” for the space race President John F. Kennedy The Apollo Missions Apollo 11-17 involved landing men on the moon; Apollo 13 was aborted due to a malfunction July 20, 1969, Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong of Apollo 11 were first men on the moon The Apollo 11 launch Neil Armstrong Each mission consisted of three astronauts: one stayed on Command Module in lunar orbit, two descended in Lunar Module to moon’s surface Total of 12 men have walked on the moon Buzz Aldrin, in Apollo 11 and on the moon (above and right) Lunar missions Unmanned probes for the Americans Unmanned probes for the Soviet -The Pioneer program. - -The Ranger program -The Lunar Orbiter program -The Robotic Surveyor program The Luna program -Luna 1 spacecraft -Luna 2 - the first craft to land on the Moon Lunar landing – The Soviet •The Soviet showed a greater ambivalence about human visits to the Moon. • Korolev, the Soviet Space Agency's chief designer, had started promoting his Soyuz craft and the N1 craft rocket that had the capacity for a manned Moon landing. •In 1964 the new Soviet leadership gave Korolev the backing for a Moon landing effort and brought all manned projects under his direction. •The failure of the first Soyuz flight was in 1967. •The failures of the N1 booster in 1969. Lunar landing – The U.S. -Americans proposed joint programs, such as a Moon landing by Soviet and American astronauts and improved weather-monitoring satellites, but the Soviet rejected these ideas. -American Neil Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the lunar surface on 21 July 1969. -The event was watched by over 500 million people around the world. The "end" of the Space Race The first human meeting took place between Soviet crafts’ Vostok 3 and Vostok 4 , on August 12, 1962. The meeting of the Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft on July 17, 1975 traditionally marks the end of the Space Race between the U.S. and the Soviet. The Russians won the race by being the first one to sent a man into space however their U.S. rivals were the ones to set their feet on the Moon.