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Radiation from space
Light from the Past
• Although light travels fast, distances between objects in
space are so great that it sometimes takes millions of years
for the light to reach Earth.
• Light travels at 300,000 km/s in a vacuum-this is the speed
of light.
• The light and other energy leaving a star are forms of
radiation\
• Radiation is energy that is transmitted from one place to
another by electromagnetic waves.
• Electromagnetic waves carry energy through empty space
and through matter.
Electromagnetic Radiation
• When astronauts speak into a microphone, the sound waves
are converted into electromagnetic waves called radio waves.
• The radio waves travel through space and through Earth’s
atmosphere.
Electromagnetic Radiation
• Radio waves and visible light from the Sun are just two
types of electromagnetic radiation.
• Other types include gamma rays, X rays, ultraviolet waves,
infrared waves, and microwaves.
Electromagnetic Radiation
• This arrangement of electromagnetic radiation is called the
electromagnetic spectrum.
• Forms of electromagnetic radiation also differ in their
frequencies
• Frequency is the number of wave crests that pass a given
point per unit of time
Optical Telescopes
• Optical telescopes use light to produce magnified images of
objects.
• Light is collected by an objective lens or mirror, which then
forms an image at the focal point of the telescope.
• The eyepiece lens then magnifies the image.
Optical Telescopes
• A refracting telescope uses convex lenses, which are curved
outward like the surface of a ball.
• Light from an object
passes through a
convex objective lens
and is bent to form an
image at the focal
point.
Optical Telescopes
• A reflecting telescope uses a curved mirror to direct light.
Optical Telescopes
• Light strikes a concave mirror, which is curved inward like a
bowl and located at the base of the telescope.
• The light is reflected off the interior surface of the bowl to
the focal point where it forms an image.
Using Optical Telescopes
• Most optical telescopes used by
professional astronomers are housed
in buildings called observatories.
• Observatories often have domeshaped roofs that can be opened up for
viewing.
Hubble Space Telescope
• The Hubble Space Telescope was launched in 1990
by the space shuttle Discovery.
• In December 1993, a team
of astronauts repaired the
Hubble Space Telescope by
installing a set of small
mirrors designed to correct
images obtained by the
faulty mirror.
Hubble Space Telescope
• Two more missions to service Hubble were carried
out in 1997 and 1999.
• Among the objects viewed by Hubble after it was
repaired in 1999 was a large cluster of galaxies
known as Abell 2218.
Large Reflecting Telescopes
• The twin Keck reflecting telescopes have segmented
mirrors 10 m wide.
• Until 2000, these
mirrors were the
largest reflectors
ever used.
Large Reflecting Telescopes
• In 2000, the European Southern Observatory’s
telescope, in Chile, consisted
of four 8.2-m
reflectors,
making it the
largest optical
telescope in use.
Active and Adaptive Optics
• With active optics, a computer corrects for changes
in temperature, mirror distortions, and bad viewing
conditions.
• Adaptive optics uses a laser to probe the atmosphere
and relay information to a computer about air
turbulence.
• In 2000, the European Southern Telescope images
are clearer when corrections for air turbulence,
temperature changes, and mirror-shape changes are
made.
Radio Telescopes
• A radio telescope is used to study radio waves
traveling through space.
• Unlike visible light, radio waves pass freely through
Earth’s atmosphere.
• Because of this, radio
telescopes are useful
24 hours per day under
most weather
conditions.
Radio Telescopes
• Radio waves reaching Earth’s surface strike
the large, concave dish of a radio telescope.
• This dish reflects the waves to a focal point
where a receiver is located.
Early Space Missions
To break free of gravity and enter Earth’s orbit,
spacecraft must travel at speeds greater than 11
km/s.
Rockets are engines that have everything they need
for the burning of fuel. The fuel which they use
does not require oxygen to burn, which was one of
the biggest challenges in the beginning.
Types of Rockets-based on fuel
Solid-propellant rockets are generally simpler but
they can’t be shut down after they are ignited.
Solid-propellant rockets use a rubberlike fuel that
contains its own oxidizer.
As the solid propellant burns, hot gases exert
pressure on all inner surfaces of the tube.
The tube pushes back on the gas except at the
nozzle where hot gases escape.
Thrust builds up and pushes the rocket forward.
Solid Propellant rockets
Liquid Propellant Rockets
Liquid-propellant rockets use a liquid fuel and an
oxidizer, such as liquid oxygen stored in separate
tanks.
To ignite the rocket, the oxidizer is mixed with the
liquid fuel in the burning chamber.
As the mixture burns, forces are exerted and the
rocket is propelled forward
Dr. Werner von Braun
Leader of Nazi rocketry
research
Inventor of the V-2
Rocket
War criminal? Victim of
Nazi “scorched Earth”?
American hero?
I have learned to use the word "impossible“
with the greatest caution.”
Slated for execution to
prevent capture by the
Allies
A “prize” for which the
Russians and Americans
competed
Surrendered to Americans
Became the “father” of
the U.S. space program
Satellites
A satellite is any object that revolves around another object
The result of the satellite traveling forward while at the
same time being pulled toward Earth is a curved path,
called an orbit.
The moon is a natural satellite
Today, thousands of artificial satellites orbit Earth.
Communication satellites transmit radio and television
programs to locations around the world, others collect data
Sputnik – October 4, 1957
“October Sky”
•The space age began when the
Soviet Union launched Sputnik,
the first artificial satellite to orbit
Earth.
Space Probes
• A space probe is an instrument that gathers information and
sends it back to Earth.
• Unlike satellites that orbit
Earth, space probes travel
into the solar system.
• Some even have traveled
to the edge of the solar
system.
• Space probes, like many
satellites, carry cameras
and other data-gathering
equipment, as well as
radio transmitters and
receivers that allow
them to communicate
with scientists on Earth.
Voyager and Pioneer Probes
•
Space probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 were launched in 1977 and now are
heading toward deep space.
•
Voyager 1 flew past Jupiter and Saturn.
•
Voyager 2 flew past Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
•
Scientists expect these probes to continue to transmit data to Earth for at least 20
more years.
•
Pioneer 10, launched in 1972, was the first probe to survive a trip through the
asteroid belt and encounter an outer planet, Jupiter.
•
The probe carries a gold medallion with an
engraving of a man, a woman, and Earth’s
position in the galaxy.
Galileo
•
Launched in 1989, Galileo reached Jupiter in 1995.
•
Galileo released a smaller probe that began a five-month approach to Jupiter.
•
Before being crushed by the atmospheric pressure, it transmitted information
about Jupiter’s composition, temperature, and pressure to the satellite orbiting
above.
Galileo
•
Studies of Jupiter’s moon Europa by Galileo indicate than an ocean of water may
exist under the surface of Europa.
•
A cracked outer layer of ice makes up Europa’s surface.
Galileo
•
The cracks in the surface may be caused by geologic activity that heats the ocean
underneath the surface.
•
Sunlight penetrates these cracks, further heating the ocean and setting the stage
for the possible existence of life on Europa.
Galileo
•
In October and November of 1999, Galileo approached Io, another one of
Jupiter’s moons. It took photographs of a volcanic vent named Loki.
•
Galileo also discovered eruption plumes that shoot gas made of sulfur and
oxygen.
En Route Space Probes
Rosetta, launched after several delays and mission changes, is currently on an
intercept course with the comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko. It will deploy a
lander for further investigation after reaching it.
Launched: 2 March 2004 | Destination: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko | Arrival: May
2014 | Institution: ESALander Probe: PhilaeNew Horizons will be the first
spacecraft to study Pluto, and ultimately the Kuiper Belt. It is the fastest
artificially-accelerated object and will be the fifth probe to leave the solar
system.
Launched: 19 January 2006 | Destination: Pluto, Charon | Arrival: July
2015 | Institution: NASAJuno is en route to Jupiter and upon arrival will enter
a polar orbit around the gas giant.
Launched: 5 August 2011 | Destination: Jupiter | Arrival:
2016 | Institution: NASAMangalyaan is the first Indian interplanetary space
probe.
Launched: 5 November 2013 | Destination: Mars | Arrival: September
2014 | Institution: ISROMAVEN — Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution.
Launched: 18 November 2013 | Destination: Mars | Arrival: September
2014 | Institution: NASA
Mission In Progress
The Cassini orbiter began studying Saturn and its moons after passing Venus and Jupiter and
deploying the Huygens landing probe to Titan. It is primarily investigating Saturn's rings,
its magnetosphere, and the geologic composition of its satellites; the mission may potentially
continue until 2017.
Launched: 15 October 1997 | Destination: Saturn | Arrival: 1 July
2004 | Institution: NASA + ESA + ASILander Probe: Huygens [mission complete]2001 Mars
Odyssey, a tribute to the classic novel and film, is one of three currently active human-made
Mars satellites. It is continuing its extended mission to map the surface of Mars and also acts as a
relay for the Curiosity andOpportunity rovers. [1]
Launched: 7 April 2001 | Destination: Mars | Arrival: 24 October 2001 | Institution: NASAMars
Express: Mars orbiter designed to study the planet's atmosphere and geology, search for sub surface water, and deploy the Beagle lander. Mission extended until at least 31 December 2014. [2]
Launched: 2 June 2003 | Destination: Mars | Arrival: 25 December
2003 | Institution: ESALander: Beagle 2 [mission failed; contact lost at landing]MESSENGER is
studying Mercury. It is only the second probe to do so and is the first to orbit the planet.
Technologically, it is far superior to its 1975 predecessor, Mariner 10. Having previously
passed Earth once, Venus twice and Mercury three times, it entered orbit in March 2011.
Launched: 4 August 2004 | Destination: Mercury | Arrival: 18 March
2011 | Institution: NASALander: Opportunity Rover landed on Meridiani Planum. Expected to last
90 Martian days (sols), it continues to function effectively after 3607 sols. Its twin, Spirit Rover,
explored an area on the other side of the planet, but became stuck in soft soil May 1, 2009, and
communication was lost March 22, 2010 (sol 2210).
Launched: 10 June 2003 | Destination: Mars | Arrival: 25 January
2004 | Institution: NASAMars Reconnaissance Orbiter is the second
NASA satellite orbiting Mars. It is specifically designed to analyze the
landforms, stratigraphy, minerals, and ice of the red planet.
Launched: 12 August 2005 | Destination: Mars | Arrival: 10 March
2006 | Institution: NASAVenus Express, modeled after the Mars
Express, is collecting data on the Venusian atmosphere and cloud
conditions. Mission extended until at least 31 December 2014. [3]
Launched: 9 November 2005 | Destination: Venus | Arrival: 11 April
2006 | Institution: ESADawn successfully entered asteroid Vesta's orbit
in July 2011. There it studied Vesta until September 2012, when it
departed for dwarf planet Ceres with expected arrival in 2015.
Launched: 27 September 2007 | Destination: Vesta | Vesta arrival: 16 July
2011 |Left Vesta: 5 September 2012 | Destination: Ceres | Arrival:
February 2015 | Institution: NASALunar Reconnaissance Orbiter is
engaged in lunar mapping intended to identify safe landing sites,
locate potential resources on the Moon, characterize the radiation
environment, and demonstrate new technology.
Launched: 18 June 2009 | Destination: Moon | Arrival: 23 June
2009 | Institution: NASAARTEMIS P1/P2 are studying the effect of
the solar wind on the Moon. Originally launched as Earth satellites,
they were later repurposed and moved to lunar orbit.
Launched: February 17, 2007 | Destination: Moon | Arrival: July
2011 | Institution: NASALander: Curiosity rover is searching for
evidence of organic material on Mars, monitoring methane levels in
the atmosphere, and engaging in exploration of the landing site at
Gale Crater.
Launched: 26 November 2011 | Destination: Mars | Arrival: 6 August
2012 | Institution: NASALADEE is studying dust in the Moon's vicinity.
Launched: 7 September 2013 | Destination: Moon | Arrival: October
2013 | Institution: NASALander: Chang'e 3 — first Chinese Moon
lander and rover.
Launched: 1 December 2013 | Destination: Moon | Arrival: 14 December
2013 | Institution: CNSA
Mission Complete w/new in progress
Voyager 1 is currently the farthest man-made object from Earth, as well as the first object
to leave the Solar System, and cross into interstellar space. As of November 2013 it lies
about 126 astronomical units (AU) from the sun [4](18.9 billion kilometers, or 0.002 light
years), and it will not be overtaken by any other current craft. It was originally tasked with
investigating Jupiter and Saturn, and the moons of these planets. Its continuing data feed
offers the first direct measurements of the heliosheath and may eventually provide data on
the heliopause. It is hoped that Voyager 1 will continue operating until at least 2020.
Launched: 5 September 1977 | Destination: Jupiter & Saturn | Arrival: January
1979 | Institution: NASAPrimary Mission Completion: November, 1980 | Current Trajectory:
bound for heliopauseVoyager 2 has not yet left the solar system, but will become one of the
first five probes to do so eventually. Its mission to study all four gas giants was one of
NASA's most successful, yielding a wealth of new information. As of November 2013 it is
some 103 AU from the sun, [4] and it is hoped that it will continue to operate until at least
2020. As with Voyager 1, scientists are now using Voyager 2 to learn what the solar system
is like beyond the heliosphere.
Launched: 20 August 1977 | Destination: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune | Arrival: 9 July
1979 | Institution: NASAPrimary Mission Completion: August 1989 | Current Trajectory: bound
for heliosheath
M.C. with new mission in consideration
ISEE-3's original mission was to study the solar wind; later,
redesignated ICE, it flew by Comet Giacobini-Zinner. Since January 1990, it
was in a 355-day heliocentric orbit. Deactivated on 1997-05-05 leaving only a
carrier signal, it was reactivated on 2008-09-18. NASA began considering
using the spacecraft to observe additional comets in 2017 or 2018. [5] No
decision has been reached on the future use of the spacecraft. If no future
uses are made, the spacecraft could be captured and given to
the Smithsonian Institution later in 2014. [6] Reuse of the spacecraft would
delay the possible capture until the 2040s.
Launched: 12 August 1978 | Destination: L2
point | Arrival: ? | Institutions: NASA + ESAMission Completion: 1982 | Current
Trajectory: heliocentric orbit, 355-day periodAkatsuki would have been the
first Japanese Venusian probe. Also known as Planet-C and Venus Climate
Orbiter, Akatsuki failed to enter Venusian orbit in December 2010. It is still
functioning, and has a possible second chance to orbit Venus in 2015. [7]
Launched: 20 May 2010 | Destination: Venus | Arrival:
2015 | Institution: JAXASubprobes: IKAROS and Shin'en
M.C. w/no new mission planned
Pioneer 6, launched in 1965, is the oldest functioning probe (if still operating). Contact was last
attempted 8 December 2000 to celebrate its thirty-fifth anniversary, and the attempt was
successful. [8] Like the three craft which superseded it, it took measurements of the solar wind, solar
magnetic field and cosmic rays.
Launched: 16 December 1965 | Destination: heliocentric orbit | Institution: NASAMission
Completion: ? | Current Trajectory: heliocentric orbitPioneer 7 was last contacted 31 March 1995; no
attempt has been made since, and this probe may or may not be operational.
Launched: 17 August 1966 | Destination: heliocentric orbit | Institution: NASAMission
Completion: ? | Current Trajectory: heliocentric orbitPioneer 8 was last contacted in 22 August 1996; no
attempt has been made since, and this probe may or may not be operational.
Launched: 8 November 1967 | Destination: heliocentric orbit | Institution: NASAMission
Completion: ? | Current Trajectory: heliocentric orbitGiotto approached within 600 kilometers of Halley's
Comet on its flyby mission, and survived some particulate impact on the inbound flight to capture
scientific data and stunning images of the comet's nucleus. Its multicolor camera was subsequently
destroyed, but the probe remained otherwise functional. Its mission completed, deactivation commands
were transmitted on 15 March 1986. Awakened four years later on 2 July, it studied the comet GriggSkjellerup as it approached within 200 kilometers eight days later, and was again deactivated on the
23rd.
Launched: 2 July 1985 | Destination: Comet Halley | Arrival: 14 March 1986 | Institution: ESAMission
Completion: 14 March 1986 | Current Trajectory: heliocentric orbitGenesis returned a capsule with a solar
wind sample to Earth in 2004. The rest of the probe was put into a parking orbit near Earth's L2 point.
Launched: 8 August 2001 | Destination: complex orbit | Arrival: ? | Institution: NASAMission Completion:
2004 | Current Trajectory: heliocentric orbit near Earth L2 pointRecently ended[edit]
Sputnik
On 4 October 1957, the USSR
successfully launched Sputnik 1, the
first artificial satellite to orbit the
Earth
Sputnik caused fear and stirred
political debate in the United States
and the formation of NASA
The satellite questioned US
technological superiority
The National Defense Education Act
was passed by Eisenhower in order
to strengthen the defenses of the
country
Sputnik helped to determine the
density of the upper atmosphere
Space Race
The space race began when the Soviet Union placed Sputnik into orbit.
The U.S. and the Soviet Union were not on friendly terms in the 1950’s and
early 1960’s.
If the USSR could place a satellite into orbit, they would be able to bomb the
United States.
Space Race
At first the Soviet Union was ahead of the United States in space exploration,
but the United States would be the first and only country ( to this day) to
place humans on the moon. There were six manned Apollo flights that landed
men (12 total) on the moon.
Formation of NASA
Founded 1958 after Congress passed the National Aeronautics
and Space Act
Formed in direct response to the launch of Sputnik
Purpose to provide organization and direction of U.S. space
program
First missions focused on getting humans into space, studying
effects of space on humans, and returning astronauts safely to
Earth
Competitors in the Space Race
United
States
Soviet
Union
After the launch of Sputnik, the U.S. and U.S.S.R. were in direct
competition to have most advanced space program
Viewed as contest between communism and capitalism
National pride and fears for national defense played large roles in
motivating space race
Satellite 1958 Alpha – Explorer I
The US answer to the Soviet
Sputnik
Launched on January 31, 1958
Explorer I flight data led to the
discovery by James Van Allen of the
Van Allen radiation belt
Animals in Space
Laika was the first animal that
traveled into space in the USSR's
Sputnik 2 in 1957. She died of
stress and overheating soon after
reaching space
In 1960 Russian space dogs Belka
and Strelka orbited the earth and
successfully returned
The American space program
imported chimpanzees from Africa,
and sent at least two into space
before launching their first human
orbiter
Soviet-launched turtles in 1968 on
Zond 5 became the first animals to
fly around the Moon
Ham the Chimp
The first flight took place
on January 31, 1961. Ham
the chimp experienced 6.6
minutes of weightlessness
during the survived the 16
1/2 minute space flight in
his Mercury MR-2 space
capsule. He reached an
altitude of 157 miles and a
speed of 5857 mph.
Humans in Space
The Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin
became the first human in space when
he entered orbit in Russia's Vostok 1 on
April 12, 1961, a day now celebrated as
a holiday in Russia and in many other
countries
Alan Shepard first entered sub-orbital
space for the U.S 23 days after Gagarin
John Glenn became the first American to
successfully orbit Earth, completing
three orbits on February 20, 1962
Soviet Valentin Tereshkova became the
first woman in space on June 16, 1963 in
Vostok 6
Aleksei Leonov carried out the first
spacewalk. This mission nearly ended in
disaster, because Leonov almost failed to
return to the capsule and due to a poor
retrorocket fire the ship landed 1600 km off
target.
First American in Space
Alan Shepard becomes the first American astronaut
to enter space, aboard the Freedom 7 spacecraft, on
May 5, 1961
Alan and his
spacecraft,
Freedom 7
The Mercury Project
NASA’s first mission
Mission goals:
• getting an astronaut into
space
• completing an orbit
• returning astronaut to
Earth safely
Several preliminary
Mercury launches were
unmanned
The Mercury - Atlas I
spacecraft
Enos the chimpanzee, crew of the Mercury
– Atlas V spacecraft
The Gemini Project
Involved sending two
astronauts into orbit for
longer periods of time
Astronaut Ed White, II
The
rendezvous
of the Gemini
VI and
Gemini VII
spacecraft
Paved the way and tested
equipment for the Apollo
missions to the moon
Astronaut Ed White, II
performs the first spacewalk
by an American during the
Gemini IV mission
President Kennedy’s Challenge
May 21, 1961: President
Kennedy challenged the
United States to land
astronauts on the moon
and to return them safely
to Earth
Challenge provided a
“finish line” for the space
race
President John F. Kennedy
The Apollo Missions
Apollo 11-17 involved landing men on
the moon; Apollo 13 was aborted due
to a malfunction
July 20, 1969, Buzz Aldrin and Neil
Armstrong of Apollo 11 were first
men on the moon
The Apollo 11 launch
Neil Armstrong
Each mission consisted of three
astronauts: one stayed on Command
Module in lunar orbit, two descended
in Lunar Module to moon’s surface
Total of 12 men have walked on the
moon
Buzz Aldrin, in Apollo 11
and on the moon (above
and right)
Lunar missions
 Unmanned probes for the
Americans
Unmanned probes for the
Soviet
-The Pioneer program.
-
-The Ranger program
-The Lunar Orbiter program
-The Robotic Surveyor program
The Luna program
-Luna 1 spacecraft
-Luna 2 - the first craft to land on
the Moon
Lunar landing – The Soviet
•The Soviet showed a greater
ambivalence about human visits to the
Moon.
• Korolev, the Soviet Space Agency's
chief designer, had started promoting
his Soyuz craft and the N1 craft rocket
that had the capacity for a manned
Moon landing.
•In 1964 the new Soviet leadership gave
Korolev the backing for a Moon landing
effort and brought all manned projects
under his direction.
•The failure of the first Soyuz flight was
in 1967.
•The failures of the N1 booster in 1969.
Lunar landing – The U.S.
-Americans proposed joint
programs, such as a Moon landing
by Soviet and American astronauts
and improved weather-monitoring
satellites, but the Soviet rejected
these ideas.
-American Neil Armstrong became
the first person to set foot on the
lunar surface on 21 July 1969.
-The event was watched by over
500 million people around the
world.
The "end" of the Space Race
The first human meeting took place
between Soviet crafts’ Vostok 3 and
Vostok 4 , on August 12, 1962.
The meeting of the Apollo and
Soyuz spacecraft on July 17, 1975
traditionally marks the end of the
Space Race between the U.S. and
the Soviet.
The Russians won the race by being
the first one to sent a man into space
however their U.S. rivals were the
ones to set their feet on the Moon.