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Research in Psychology Chapter Two 8-10% of Exam AP Psychology Theories tentative explanations that must be subjected to scientific evaluation constantly being formulated, evaluated, reformulated, and sometimes abandoned based on research results Goals of Psychological Research describe phenomenon make predictions demonstrate some control over variables explain the phenomenon with confidence Naturalistic Observation Feature: The process of watching without interfering as behavior occurs in the natural environment Strengths: Provides descriptive data about behavior presumably uncontaminated by outside influences Pitfalls: Observer bias and participant selfconsciousness can distort results Case Studies Feature: Intensive examination of the behavior and mental processes associated with a specific person, group or situation. Strengths: Provide detailed descriptive analysis of new, complex, or rare phenomenon. Pitfalls: May not provide representative picture of phenomena. Surveys Feature: Standard set of questions asked of a large number of participants – asks people about their behavior, attitudes, beliefs, and opinions Strengths: Gather large amounts of descriptive data relatively quickly and inexpensively. Pitfalls: Sampling errors, poorly phrased questions, and response biases can distort results. Correlational Studies Feature: Examine relationships between research variables. Strengths: Can test predictions, evaluate theories, and suggest new hypotheses. Pitfalls: Cannot infer causal relationships between variables. Correlation Correlation – the degree to which one variable is related to another Correlation Coefficients Correlation Coefficient – a statistic, r, that summarizes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) Correlation coefficient r = +.37 Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00) Experiments Feature: Manipulation of an independent variable and measurement of its effects on a dependent variable. Strengths: Can establish a cause-effect relationship between independent and dependent variables. Pitfalls: Confounding variables may prevent valid conclusions. Key Terms in experiments— KNOW THEM!!! Hypothesis Confounding Variables Independent Variable Random Variables Dependent Variable Participant Expectations Operational Definition Placebo Experimental Group Confirmation Bias Control Group Figure 2.1: A Simple Two-Group Experiment Independent Variable: Whether or not one received the EMDR treatment. Dependent Variable: Anxiety level. Sources for Confounding Variables Random Variables Participants’ Expectations Importance of random assignment Placebo effect Experimenter Bias Can be minimized through the use of a double-blind design Selecting Human Participants for Research Sampling = the process of selecting participants for research The sampling procedures used can: Affect the research results. Limit the meaning of the results Representative Samples A group of research participants whose characteristics fairly reflect the characteristics of the population from which they were selected If psychologists want to make scientific statements about the behavior and mental processes of any large group, they must use a representative sample of participants Random vs. Biased Samples Random - A group of research participants selected from a population whose members all had an equal chance of being chosen Biased – A group of research participants selected who did not have an equal chance of being chosen Convenience Samples Populations that are conveniently available to the researcher Researcher must check age, gender, ethnicity, and other characteristics of participants Statistical Analysis of Research Results Descriptive Statistics - #s that DESCRIBE a set of research data Measures of Central Tendency Measures of Variability Correlation Coefficients Inferential Statistics – a set of mathematical procedures that help researchers INFER what their data mean Measures of Central Tendency for Descriptive Statistics Mean – average Median – halfway point Mode – occurs most frequently Measures of Variability Range – difference between highest and lowest values Standard Deviation (SD) – average distance between each score and the mean of the data set Table 2.4: A Set of Pretreatment Anxiety Ratings
