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INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY
Concepts & Connections
Sixth Edition by Charles H. Corwin
Chapter 5
Models of
the Atom
by Christopher Hamaker
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
1
Dalton Model of the Atom
• John Dalton proposed that all matter is made up of
tiny particles.
• These particles are molecules or atoms.
• Molecules can be broken down into atoms by
chemical processes.
• Atoms cannot be broken down by chemical or
physical processes.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
2
Dalton Model
• According to the law of definite composition, the
mass ratio of carbon to oxygen in carbon dioxide
is always the same. Carbon dioxide is composed
of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms.
• Similarly, two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen combine to give water.
• Dalton proposed that two hydrogen atoms could
substitute for each oxygen atom in carbon dioxide
to make methane with one carbon atom and four
hydrogen atoms. Indeed, methane is CH4!
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
3
Dalton Atomic Theory
A Summary of Dalton Atomic Theory:
An element is composed of tiny, indivisible,
indestructible particles called atoms.
1. All atoms of an element are identical and have the same
properties.
2. Atoms of different elements combine to form compounds.
3. Compounds contain atoms in small whole number ratios.
4. Atoms can combine in more than one ratio to form
different compounds.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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4
Dalton Atomic Theory, Continued
• The first two parts of atomic theory were later
proven incorrect. We will see this later.
• Proposals 3, 4, and 5 are still accepted today.
• The Dalton theory was an important step in the
further development of atomic theory.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
5
Subatomic Particles
•
About 50 years after Dalton’s proposal, evidence
was seen that atoms were divisible.
•
Two subatomic particles were discovered.
1. Negatively charged electrons, e–.
2. Positively charged protons, p+.
•
An electron has a relative charge of -1, and a
proton has a relative charge of +1.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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6
Thomson Model of the Atom
• J. J. Thomson proposed a subatomic model
of the atom in 1903.
• Thomson proposed that
the electrons were
distributed evenly
throughout a homogeneous
sphere of positive charge.
• This was called the
plum pudding model
of the atom.
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Chapter 5
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Mass of Subatomic Particles
• Originally, Thomson could only calculate the
mass-to-charge ratio of a proton and an electron.
• Robert Millikan determined the charge of an
electron in 1911.
• Thomson calculated the masses of a proton and
electron:
– An electron has a mass of 9.11 × 10-28 g.
– A proton has a mass of 1.67 × 10-24 g.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
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Types of Radiation
•
There are three types of radiation:
1. Alpha (a)
2. Beta (b)
3. Gamma (g)
•
Alpha rays are composed of helium atoms
stripped of their electrons (helium nuclei).
•
Beta rays are composed of electrons.
•
Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic
radiation.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
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Rutherford Gold Foil Experiment
• Rutherford’s student fired
alpha particles at thin gold
foils. If the plum pudding
model of the atom was
correct, α particles should
pass through undeflected.
• However, some of the
alpha particles were
deflected backward.
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Explanation of Scattering
• Most of the alpha particles passed through the
foil because an atom is largely empty space.
• At the center of an atom is the atomic nucleus,
which contains the atom’s protons.
• The alpha particles that
bounced backward
did so after striking
the dense nucleus.
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Chapter 5
did
11
Rutherford Model of the Atom
• Rutherford proposed a new model of the atom:
The negatively charged electrons are distributed around
a positively charged nucleus.
• An atom has a diameter
of about 1 × 10-8 cm and
the nucleus has a diameter
of about 1 × 10-13 cm.
• If an atom were the size
of the Astrodome, the
nucleus would be the size
of a marble.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
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Subatomic Particles Revisited
• Based on the heaviness of the nucleus, Rutherford
predicted that it must contain neutral particles in
addition to protons.
• Neutrons, n0, were discovered about 30 years later.
A neutron is about the size of a proton without any
charge.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
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Atomic Notation
• Each element has a characteristic number of
protons in the nucleus. This is the atomic
number, Z.
• The total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom is the mass number, A.
• We use atomic notation to display the number of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom:
mass number (p+ and n0)
atomic number (p+)
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
A
Z
Sy
Chapter 5
symbol of the element
14
Using Atomic Notation
• An example: Si
29
14
• The element is silicon (symbol Si).
• The atomic number is 14; silicon has 14 protons.
• The mass number is 29; the atom of silicon has 29
protons + neutrons.
• The number of neutrons is A – Z = 29 – 14 =
15 neutrons.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Isotopes
• All atoms of the same element have the same
number of protons.
• Most elements occur naturally with varying
numbers of neutrons.
• Atoms of the same element that have a different
number of neutrons in the nucleus are called
isotopes.
• Isotopes have the same atomic number, but
different mass numbers.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Isotopes, Continued
• We often refer to an isotope by stating the name of
the element followed by the mass number.
– Cobalt-60 is
60
37
– Carbon-14 is
14
6
Co
C
• How many protons and neutrons does an atom of
lead-206 have?
– The atomic number of Pb is 82, so it has 82 protons.
– Pb-206 has 206 – 82 = 124 neutrons.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Simple and Weighted Averages
• A simple average assumes the same number of
each object.
• A weighted average takes into account the fact
that we do not have equal numbers of all the
objects.
• A weighted average is calculated by multiplying
the percentage of the object (as a decimal number)
by its mass for each object and adding the numbers
together.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
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Average Atomic Mass
•
Since not all isotopes of an atom are present in
equal proportions, we must use the weighted
average.
•
Copper has two isotopes:
1.
2.
•
63Cu,
with a mass of 62.930 amu and 69.09% abundance.
65Cu, with a mass of 64.928 amu and 30.91% abundance.
The average atomic mass of copper is:
(62.930 amu)(0.6909) + (64.928 amu)(0.3091)
= 63.55 amu
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
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Periodic Table
• We can use the periodic table to obtain the atomic
number and atomic mass of an element.
• The periodic table shows the atomic number,
symbol, and atomic mass for each element.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
20
Wave Nature of Light
• Light travels through space as a wave, similar to
an ocean wave.
– Wavelength is the distance light travels in one cycle.
– Frequency is the number of wave cycles completed
each second.
• Light travels at a constant speed: 3.00 × 108 m/s
(given the symbol c).
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Wavelength Versus Frequency
• The longer the wavelength of light, the lower the
frequency.
• The shorter the wavelength of light, the higher the
frequency.
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Radiant Energy Spectrum
• The complete radiant energy spectrum is an
uninterrupted band, or continuous spectrum.
• The radiant energy spectrum includes many
types of radiation,
most of
which are
invisible to
the human
eye.
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Visible Spectrum
• Light usually refers to radiant energy that is visible
to the human eye.
• The visible spectrum is the range of wavelengths
between 400 and 700 nm.
• Radiant energy that has a wavelength lower than
400 nm and greater than 700 nm cannot be seen by
the human eye.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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The Quantum Concept
• The quantum concept states that energy is present
in small, discrete bundles.
• For example:
– A tennis ball that rolls down a ramp loses potential
energy continuously.
– A tennis ball that rolls down a staircase loses potential
energy in small bundles. The loss is quantized.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Bohr Model of the Atom
• Niels Bohr speculated that electrons orbit about
the nucleus in fixed energy levels.
• Electrons are found only in specific energy levels,
and nowhere else.
• The electron energy
levels are quantized.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Emission Line Spectra
• When an electrical voltage is passed across a gas
in a sealed tube, a series of narrow lines is seen.
• These lines are the emission line spectrum. The
emission line spectrum for hydrogen gas shows
three lines: 434 nm, 486 nm, and 656 nm.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Evidence for Energy Levels
• Bohr realized that this was the evidence he needed
to prove his theory.
• The electric charge temporarily excites an electron
to a higher orbit. When the electron drops back
down, a photon is
given off.
• The red line is the
least energetic and
corresponds to an
electron dropping
from energy level 3
to energy level 2.
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“Atomic Fingerprints”
• The emission line spectrum of each element is
unique.
• We can use the line spectrum to identify elements
using their “atomic fingerprint.”
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Chapter 5
29
Critical Thinking: “Neon Lights”
• Most “neon” signs don’t actually contain neon
gas.
• True neon signs are red in color.
• Each noble gas has its own emission spectrum,
and signs made with each have a different color.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
30
Energy Levels and Sublevels
• It was later shown that electrons occupy energy
sublevels within each level.
• These sublevels are given the designations s, p, d,
and f.
– These designations are in reference to the sharp,
principal, diffuse, and fine lines in emission spectra.
• The number of sublevels in each level is the same
as the number of the main level.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Energy Levels and Sublevels,
Continued
• The first energy level has one sublevel designated
1s.
• The second energy level has two sublevels
designated 2s and 2p.
• The third energy level has three sublevels
designated 3s, 3p, and 3d.
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Electron Occupancy in Sublevels
• The maximum number of electrons in each of the
energy sublevels depends on the sublevel:
– The s sublevel holds a maximum of 2 electrons.
– The p sublevel holds a maximum of 6 electrons.
– The d sublevel holds a maximum of 10 electrons.
– The f sublevel holds a maximum of 14 electrons.
• The maximum electrons per level is obtained by
adding the maximum number of electrons in each
sublevel.
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Electrons per Energy Level
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Chapter 5
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Electron Configurations
• Electrons are arranged about the nucleus in a
regular manner. The first electrons fill the energy
sublevel closest to the nucleus.
• Electrons continue filling each sublevel until it is
full, and then start filling the next closest sublevel.
• A partial list of sublevels in order of increasing
energy is as follows:
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d …
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Filling Diagram for Energy Sublevels
• The order does
not strictly
follow 1, 2, 3,
etc.
• For now, use
Figure 5.16 to
predict the
order of
sublevel filling.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Electron Configurations
• The electron configuration of an atom is a
shorthand method of writing the location of
electrons by sublevel.
• The sublevel is written followed by a superscript
with the number of electrons in the sublevel. For
example, if the 2p sublevel contains two electrons,
it is written 2p2.
• The electron sublevels are arranged according to
increasing energy.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
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Writing Electron Configurations
• First, determine how many electrons are in the
atom. Bromine has 35 electrons.
• Arrange the energy sublevels according to
increasing energy:
– 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d …
• Fill each sublevel with electrons until you have
used all the electrons in the atom:
– Fe: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d 10 4p5
• The sum of the superscripts equals the atomic
number of bromine (35).
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
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Quantum Mechanical Model
• An orbital is the region of space where there is a
high probability of finding an atom.
• In the quantum mechanical atom, orbitals are
arranged according to their size and shape.
• The higher the energy of an orbital, the larger its
size.
• All s orbitals
have spherical
shapes.
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Shapes of p Orbitals
• Recall that there are three different p sublevels.
• All p orbitals have dumbbell shapes.
• Each of the p orbitals has the same shape, but
each is oriented along a different axis in space.
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Shapes of d Orbitals
• Recall that there are five different d sublevels.
• Four of the d orbitals have a clover-leaf shape and
one has a dumbbell and doughnut shape.
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Location of Electrons in an Orbital
• The orbitals are the region of space in which the
electrons are most likely to be found.
• An analogy for an electron in a p orbital is a fly
trapped in two bottles held end to end.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Chapter Summary
• Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and
electrons.
• The protons and neutrons are located in the
nucleus, and the electrons are outside the nucleus.
• Atoms are mostly empty space.
• The number of protons is referred to as the atomic
number for the atom.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
43
Chapter Summary, Continued
• All atoms of the same element have the same
number of protons.
• Isotopes are atoms with the same number of
protons, but differing numbers of neutrons.
• The mass number for an isotope is the total
number of protons plus neutrons.
• The atomic mass of an element is the weighted
average of the masses of all the naturally occurring
isotopes.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5
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Chapter Summary, Continued
• Light has properties of both waves and particles.
• The particles of light are referred to as photons.
• The energy of photons is quantized.
• Electrons exist around the nucleus of atoms in
discrete, quantized energy levels.
• Electrons fill energy sublevels, starting with the
lowest energy sublevel and filling each successive
level of higher energy.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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