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Chapter 4: Conditioning
Techniques
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Reduce Injury
Prepare the Athlete
for Activity
Injury Rehabilitation
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Athletic Trainers and
Strength and Conditioning
Coaches
• Cooperative relationship that serves to
condition athletes in an effort to minimize
injury and maximize performance
• Knowledge of flexibility, strength, and
cardiorespiratory endurance is necessary
• Many strength coaches are certified
through the National Strength and
Conditioning Association
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• Athletic trainer may be called upon to
review programs/make suggestions
– Take into consideration components of
particular sport and injury prevention
• Rehabilitation of injuries is the
responsibility of the athletic trainer
• Different settings (professional, college,
high school) will require differing levels
of supervision by the athletic trainer
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Principles of Conditioning
and Training
• Safety
• Warm-up/Cool-down
• Motivation
• Overload and SAID
principle
• Consistency/routine
• Progression
• Intensity
• Specificity
• Individuality
• Relaxation/Minimize
Stress
• Safety
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Warm-up
• Precaution against unnecessary
musculoskeletal injury and soreness
• May enhance certain aspects of performance
• Prepares body physiologically for physical
work
• Stimulates cardiorespiratory system,
enhancing circulation and blood flow to
muscles
• Increases metabolic processes, core
temperature, and muscle elasticity
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• Warm up should begin with 2-3 minutes of
light jogging to increase core temperatures
– Increases in core temperature have shown to
be effective in reducing injury
– Breaking a light sweat is an indication of this
temperature increase
• No evidence to suggest the effectiveness of
stretching on injury reduction
– Empirically, many people still include stretching
– No evidence to indicate that it is harmful
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• Dynamic Stretching
– Use of continuous motion to prepare body
for activity
• Hopping, skipping, jogging, bounding, foot work
– Enhances coordination and motor ability,
stimulates the nervous system
– Prepares muscles and joints in a more
activity specific manner
– Requires focus and concentration
– Should include activities for all of the major
muscle groups
– May last from 5-20 minutes
– Activity should begin immediately following
warm-up
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Cool-down
•
•
•
•
•
Essential component of workout
Bring body back to resting state
5-10 minutes in duration
Often ignored, *usually due to time*
Decreased muscle soreness following
training if time used to stretch after
workout
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Cardiorespiratory Endurance
• Perform whole body activities for
extended period of time
• Performance vs. fatigue vs. injury
• System’s four components
– Heart
– Lungs
– Blood vessels
– Blood
• Improvements in endurance are the
results of improvements in these 4
components
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• Aerobic capacity = VO2max
• Increases in intensity require higher
levels of oxygen consumption
• Inherit certain range of maximum
aerobic capacity
• More active = higher capacity
• Average value = 45-60 ml O2/min/kg
• Three factors impact capacity
– External respiration
– Ventilatory process
– Gas transportation (most limiting factor)
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Vo2 Max
• Method 1
• Estimated VO2 max (ml/kg/min) = 132.853 –
(0.0769 x body weight in [pounds]) – (0.3877 x
age [years]) + (6.3150 x gender [female = 0; male
= 1]) – (3.2649 x 1-mile walk time [in minutes and
hundredths]) – (0.1565 x 1-minute heart rate at
end of mile [beats per minute]).
• The outcome will have a standard estimate of
error of +/- 5
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Common VO2 Max Values
• Male
• 20-29: 42.2 ml/kg/min
30-39: 41.0 ml/kg/min
40-49: 38.4 ml/kg/min
50-59: 35.2 ml/kg/min
60-69: 31.4 ml/kg/min
70-79: 28.0 ml/kg/min
• Female
• 20-29: 35.5 ml/kg/min
30-39: 33.8 ml/kg/min
40-49: 31.6 ml/kg/min
50-59: 28.7 ml/kg/min
60-69: 26.6 ml/kg/min
70-79: 23.8 ml/kg/min
World class male athletes, cyclists, and cross country skiers: 75 ml/kg/min or higher
World class female athletes, cyclists, and cross country skiers: 70 ml/kg/min
Few rarely exceed: 85 ml/kg/min. Competitive club athlete: 70 ml/kg/min
Thoroughbred horses: Exceed 180 ml/kg/min
Siberian dogs running the Iditarod Trail sled Dog Race: 180 ml/kg/min
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Figure 4-1
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Effects on the Heart
• Main pumping mechanism
• Increase exercise = increased oxygen
requirement=increase heart pumping
• Heart must gradually adapt to imposed
demands but will reach steady state
after 2-3 minutes of training
• Heart able to adapt through increases in
heart rate and stroke volume which will
enhance overall cardiac output
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Figure 4-2
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• A training effect results with regard to
cardiac output.
• Over the course of training, at a given
intensity, stroke volume increases while
heart rate is reduced
• Cardiac functioning becomes more
efficient (hypertrophy of heart occurs)
Cardiac Output = Increased Stroke Volume x Decreased Heart
Rate
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Figure 4-3
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Figure 4-4 and 4-5
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Effects on Work Ability
• Cardiorespiratory endurance has a
critical role in an individual’s ability to
resist fatigue
• When comparing two people working at
the same intensity, the individual with a
higher VO2max will be working at a
lower % of maximum aerobic capacity
– Higher VO2max = ability to sustain activity
at a given intensity longer
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Figure 4-6
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Energy Systems
• Various sports entail different energy
demands
• Long distance running and swimming
vs. sprinting and jumping
• ATP: Immediate Energy Source
– ATP produced from glucose breakdown
– Glucose from blood or glycogen (muscle or
liver) broken down to glucose and converted
to ATP
– Fat becomes utilized when glycogen stores
are depleted
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• Aerobic versus Anaerobic Metabolism
– Initially, for short burst of activity, ATP can be
metabolized quickly to meet needs
• After a very short period of time those stores are
depleted
– Initial ATP production from glucose occurs in
muscle (without oxygen = anaerobic)
• Lactic acid is also produced
• Referred to as anaerobic metabolism
– Transition to glucose and fat oxidation
(requiring oxygen = aerobic) to continue
activity
• Aerobic metabolism
• Able to process lactate fully resulting in additional
ATP production
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– Generally both systems occur to a degree
simultaneously
– Type of ATP production relative to intensity
• Short burst (high intensity) = anaerobic
• Long duration (sustained intensity) = aerobic
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Training Techniques for
Improving Cardiorespiratory
Endurance
• Level of improvement will be
determined by initial levels
• Continuous
– Frequency (at least 3 times/week)
– Intensity
• Must elevate heart rate to 70% of maximum
• Most critical factor
– Type of activity- must be aerobic in nature
– Time (at least 20 minutes)
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Figure 4-7
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• Target Heart Rate
– Determine maximum heart rate
• Involves exercising at max levels and
monitoring HR using an electrocardiogram
• Approximations can also be used as well
• 220-age = HRmax
• Heart Rate Reserve (HRR)
– Difference between resting HRrest and
HRmax
• Potential of heart rate training intensities
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– Karvonen Equation
• Used to calculate exercise heart rate at a given
percentage of training intensity
• Requires resting HR and HRmax
Exercise HR = % of target intensity(HRmax – HRrest) + HRrest
• These values are always predictions when using
estimate HR values (max and rest)
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• Interval training
– Intermittent activities involving periods of
intense work and active recovery
– Must occur at 60-80% of maximal heart
rate
– Allows for higher intensity training at short
intervals over an extended period of time
– Most anaerobic sports require short burst
which can be mimicked through interval
training
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• Speed Play
– Cross-country running that originated in
Sweden
• Originally referred to as Fartlek
– Similar to interval training in the fact that
activity occurs over a specific period of time
but pace and speed are not specified
– Consists of varied terrain which incorporates
varying degrees of hills
– Dynamic form of training
– Must elevate heart rate to minimal levels to be
effective
– Popular form of training in off-season
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• Equipment for Improving Endurance
– Cost can vary from $2- $60,000
– Jump rope to treadmill and computers
Figure 4-7 A & G
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Importance of
Muscular Strength,
Endurance and
Power
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Muscle Strength, Power,
and Endurance
• Strength: ability to generate force against
resistance
• Power: is the relationship between
strength and time
• Muscular endurance: repetitive muscular
contractions (increase strength = increase
endurance
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Muscle Contractions
• Isometric contraction
– No length change occurs during contraction
– Pro: quick, effective, cheap, good for rehab
– Con: only works at one point in ROM
• Isotonic contraction
– Concentric- shortening of muscle with contraction
in an effort to overcome more resistance
– Eccentric - lengthening of muscle with contraction
because load is greater than force being produced
– Both are considered dynamic movements
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Physiological and Biomechanical
Factors that Determine Levels of
Muscular Strength
• Hypertrophy vs. Atrophy
• Size of muscle: function of diameter and
number of fibers
• Neuromuscular efficiency
• Biomechanical factors
• Overtraining (psychologically,
physiologically)
• Reversibility
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Explanation for Muscle
Hypertrophy
• Three theories of muscle
hypertrophy:
– Increase in number of fibers
– Infusion of blood - transient hypertrophy
– Increase in protein myofilament number
and size
• PROVEN
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• Improved Neuromuscular Efficiency
– Early gains minus hypertrophy
– Enhanced efficiency due to enhanced
neural function
• Other Physiological Adaptations to
Resistance Training
– Increased non-contractile tissue strength,
bone mineral content, aerobic/anaerobic
enzymes, enhanced oxygen uptake
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• Biomechanical
Factors
– Bones, muscles, and
tendons create a series
of levers and pulleys
that generate force
against external objects
– Particular attachments
of muscles to bones will
determine how much
force the muscle is
capable of generating
Figure 4-8 A & B
Figure 4-9
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• Overtraining
– Can result in psychological and physiological
breakdown resulting in injury, fatigue and
illness
– Training appropriately, eating right, and
getting appropriate amounts of rest are critical
for prevention
• Reversibility
– Gains in muscular strength resulting from
resistance training can be reversed
– Declines in training or stopping all together
will result in rapid decreases in strength
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Fast Twitch vs. Slow Twitch
• Fibers within a particular motor unit
display distinct metabolic and
contractile capability
Slow twitch (Type I, slow oxidative):
– Fatigue resistant
– Time necessary to produce force is greater
– Long duration, aerobic type activities
– Generally major constituent of postural
muscles
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Fast twitch (Type II, fast oxidative
glycolytic)
– Fatigue
– Anaerobic in nature
– High force in short amount of time
– Produce powerful movements
– Types
• IIa = Moderately fatigue resistant
• IIx & IId = Fast glycolytic, short anaerobic burst,
less mitochondrial density as compared to IIa
• IIb = True fast-twitch; very low mitochondrial
density
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Individual make-up
– Muscles contain both types of fibers
– Fiber type ratios vary between muscles
• Impacts muscle function
• Postural vs. powerful movement
– Genetically determined
– Varies between people
– May impact an individual’s abilities for a
given sport
Metabolic capabilities can change in
response to training
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Techniques of Resistance
Training
• Progressive resistance exercise
• Overload principle must be applied
• Must work muscle at increasingly higher
intensities to enhance strength over
time
• If intensity of training does not increase,
but training continues, muscle strength
will be sustained
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Overload Principle
• Activity must be increased and
upgraded constantly in order to gain a
higher response from the body
• Work at or near maximum capacity
• Applicable to conditioning and training
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Functional Training
• Uses integrated exercises
designed to improve functional
movement patterns
– Training for strength and
neuromuscular control
• Driven by the kinetic chain
concept
• Training in 3 planes of motion
– Involves integration of
proprioceptive feedback to
perform tri-planar movement tasks
• Avoids isolated single plane
training
• Designed to enhance
neuromuscular efficiency
Figure 4-10
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• If any link in kinetic chain is not working
efficiently compensations may occur
– Leads to injury, predictable injury patterns,
decreased performance
• Designed to enhance functional
movement patterns
• Works on core strength and dynamic
flexibility
• Training variables
– Plane of motion, body position, base of
support, balance modality, external
resistance
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Core Stabilization Training
• The core is the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex
– Center of gravity is located there
• Core training works to improve
– Dynamic postural control
– Muscular balance
– Functional strength
– Neuromuscular efficiency
• Body must be adequately stabilized
– Allows muscles (prime movers) to generate
strong, powerful, movements
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• A weak core
can lead to
inefficient
movements
and
potentially
injury
Figure 4-11
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Isometric Exercise
• Contraction where muscle length remains
unchanged
• Muscle contraction that lasts 10 seconds
and should be perform 5-10 times/daily
• Pro: quick, effective, cheap, good for
rehabilitation
• Con: only works at one point in ROM,
produces spiking of blood pressure due to
Valsalva maneuver
– Continue breathing to minimize increase in
pressure
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Progressive Resistance
Exercise
– Shortening/lengthening
– Concentric vs. Eccentric
– Various types of
equipment can be
utilized
• (Free weights, machine
weight)
– Spotter is necessary for
free weight training to
prevent injury, motivate
partner and instruct on
technique
Figure 4-13 A & B
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Isotonic Strength Training
• Concentric and eccentric training should
be incorporated for greatest strength
improvement
• Concentric phase of lift should last 1-2
seconds, eccentric phase 2-4 seconds
• Variations exist between free and
machine weight lifting
– Motion restrictions, levels of muscular
control required, amount of weight that can
be lifted
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• Progressive
Resistance
Exercise
Techniques
– Repetitions
– Repetition
maximum
– One repetition
maximum
– Set
– Intensity
– Recovery period
– Frequency
Figure 4-13 E, F, J
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• When training, should be able to
perform 3 sets of 6-8 repetitions
• Increases should occur in increments of
10%
• 1 RM can be utilized measure maximum
amount of weight that can be lifted must be very careful
• Training of a particular muscle group
should occur 3-4 times per week (not on
successive days)
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Muscular Endurance vs.
Strength
• Training for endurance enhances
strength and vice versa
• Training for strength should involve
lower repetitions at heavier weight
• Training for endurance requires lower
weight at 12-15 repetitions
• Persons that possess greater strength
also tend to exhibit greater muscular
endurance
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Isokinetic Training
• Muscle contraction at a constant
velocity
• Maximal and constant resistance
throughout the full range of motion
• Maximal effort = Maximal strength gains
• Disadvantages
– Cost
– Need for maximal effort/motivation
• Rehabilitation
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Figure 4-15
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Circuit Training
• Combination of exercise stations
• 8 - 12 stations, 3 times through
• Design for different training goals
– Flexibility
– Calisthenics
– Aerobic exercise
• Utilized in the majority of fitness centers in
both corporate and health club settings
• May be beneficial both in terms of strength
& endurance
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Calisthenic Strengthening
Exercises
• Free exercise
• Isotonic training
• Gravity’s involvement determines level
of intensity
• Full range of motion, may incorporate
holding phase
• Pull-ups, push-ups, back extensions,
leg extensions
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Plyometric Exercise
• Rapid stretch, eccentric contraction
followed by a rapid concentric
contraction to create a forceful
explosive movement
• Stretch-shortening cycle
– Underlying mechanism for plyometrics
– Muscle takes advantage of potential
energy, resulting in increased power
production
• Rate of stretch vs. magnitude
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• Jumps, bounds, medicine
ball throws
• Very technical training
– Skills must be learned with
appropriate technique
• Allows for functional
strengthening of muscles,
tendons and ligaments
• Advantage
– Helps in development of
eccentric control of
dynamic movements
Figure 4-16 D, I, J
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Training for the Female
• Critical for females
• Significant hypertrophy is related to
testosterone present within body
• Remarkable gains are experienced
initially due to enhanced nervous
system and muscle interaction
(efficiency-not muscle bulk)
• Following initial gains, plateau occurs,
with females
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• Males tend to continue to increase
strength with training
• Critical difference is the ratio of strength
to body fat
– Females have reduced strength to body
weight ratio due to higher percentage of
body fat
– Ratio can be enhanced through weight
training and decrease in body fat
percentage/increased lean weight
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Strength Training in
Prepubescent and Adolescents
• If properly supervised younger
individuals can improve strength, power,
endurance, balance and proprioception
• Develop a positive body image
• Results in improved sports performance
while preventing injuries
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• Strength gains can occur without
significant muscle hypertrophy
• Close supervision and instruction is critical
• Progression = based on physical maturity
• Calisthenic exercises and body weight as
resistance can be utilized in a functional
strengthening program
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Flexibility vs. Strength
• Co-exist
• Believed that individuals that are “muscle
bound” = zero flexibility?
• Strength training will provide individual
with ability to develop dynamic flexibility
through full range of motion
• Develop more powerful and coordinated
movements
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Improving and Maintaining
Flexibility
• Ability to move a joint(s) smoothly through a
full range of motion (ROM)
• Good flexibility is essential for successful
physical performance
• Normal ROM has been recognized as
acceptable for normal daily function
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• Results of stretching
and flexibility
research
Figure 4-17
– Conflicting evidence
regarding the impact on
performance capabilities
– Uncoordinated/awkward
movements may result if
ROM is limited
– Recommended by athletic
trainers to prevent injury,
however, cause and effect
relationship has not been
identified
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Factors That Limit Flexibility
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bony structures
Tissue approximation
Excessive fat
Muscle and tendon lengths
Connective tissue
Scarring and contractures
Skin
Neural tissue tightness
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Agonist vs. Antagonist
Muscles
• Joints are capable of multiple movements
• Agonist
– Muscle producing movement
– Quadriceps contract to produce knee
extension
• Antagonist
– Muscle undergoing stretch during movement
– Hamstrings will stretch during knee extension
• Agonist and antagonist work together to
produce smooth coordinated movements
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Range of Motion
(ROM)
• Active range of
motion
– Dynamic flexibility
– Ability to move a
joint with little
resistance
• Passive range of
motion
– Static flexibility
– Motion of joint to
end points without
muscle contraction
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Range of Motion
• Must be able to move through
unrestricted range
• Must have elasticity for additional
stretch encountered during activity
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Mechanisms for Improving
Flexibility
• Improvements in ROM may not all be
attributed to the stretch reflex
• Some studies indicate that it is the
result of one’s ability to tolerate the
stretch
• Others indicate that the viscoelastic
properties of the tissues are another
possible mechanism
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Neurophysiological Basis of
Stretching
Stretch Reflex
– Muscle is placed on stretch
– Muscle spindles & Golgi tendon organs
(GTO) fire relaying information to spinal cord
– Spinal cord relays message to golgi tendon
and increases tension
– After 6 seconds GTO relays signal for muscle
tension to decrease
• Results in reflex relaxation of antagonist
• Prevents injury - protective mechanism
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Figure 4-19
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• With static stretching golgi tendons are
able to override impulses from muscle
spindle following initial reflex resistance
• Allows muscle to remain stretched without
injury
• Using PNF = benefit greatly from these
principles
– With slow-reversal hold technique, maximal
contraction of muscle stimulates GTO reflex
relaxation before stretch applied
– Relaxation of antagonist during contraction =
autogenic inhibition
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• During relaxation phase, antagonist is
placed under stretch but assisted by
agonist contraction to pull further
• Contraction elicits additional relaxation
of antagonist (protect against injury)
• Referred to as reciprocal inhibition
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Figure 4-20
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The Effects of Stretching on
the Physical and Mechanical
Properties of Muscle
• Lengthening occurs in tissue dictated by
neural input
• Non-contractile collagen and elastin
– Collagen resists forces and deformation
– Elastin assists in recovery from
deformation
• Muscles also have actin and myosin in
addition to collagen and elastin
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• Contributions of non-contractile and
contractile elements in resisting
deformation is dependent on:
– Degree of stretch or deformation
– Velocity of deformation
• Non-contractile elements control length
• Contractile elements modify velocity of
deformation
• Lengthening of muscle
– Allows for viscoelastic and plastic changes in
collagen and elastin
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– Viscoelastic changes that allow for slow
deformation, with imperfect recovery, are
not permanent
– Plastic changes result in residual or
permanent changes due to long periods of
stretching
• Greater velocity of deformation =
greater chance for exceeding tissue’s
capability to undergo viscoelastic and
plastic changes
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Stretching Techniques
Ballistic
– Bouncing movement in which repetitive
contractions of agonist work to stretch
antagonist muscle
– Possible soreness due to repeated
eccentric contractions of antagonist
Dynamic Stretching
– May more closely mimic muscle activity
during sport/activity
– Considered functional and often suggested
for athletes prior to activity
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Static stretching
– Passively
stretching
– 6-8 second hold
– Go to point of pain
and back off and
hold for 30 seconds
(3 to 4 times)
– Controlled, less
chance of injury
– Not dynamic
– Does not require a
partner
Figure 4-21 B
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• Proprioceptive
Neuromuscular Facilitation
Techniques
– Initially used by physical
therapists for neuromuscular
paralysis
– Slow-reversal-hold-relax
– Contract-relax
– Hold-relax
– Best technique to improve
flexibility
– Autogenic inhibition (push =
tension)
– Reciprocal inhibition (pull = relax)
– All techniques involve 10 sec
contract and relax
Figure 4-21 C
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• Stretching Neural
Structures
– Must differentiate
between
musculotendinous
tightness and neural
tension
• Stretching Fascia
– Fascia can limit
motion (pain, injury,
inflammation)
– Can be performed
manually or using
foam roller
Figure 4-21 D & E
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The Pilates Method
• Conditioning program that improves
muscle control, flexibility, coordination,
strength and tone
• Enhances body awareness, improves
body alignment and breathing,
increases movement efficiency
• Designed to stretch and strengthen
muscles through a sequence of
carefully performed movements
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Figure 4-22 & 23
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• Utilizes specific breathing pattern for
each exercise
• Goal
– Develop a healthy self image through
posture, coordination and flexibility
• Generally begins with one-on-one
session in order to assess client’s
physical condition
• Classes in a studio are also available
– Very popular in health clubs and gyms
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Yoga
• Based on philosophy that illness is
related to poor mental attitude, posture
and diet
• Reduce stress through mental and
physical approaches
• Used to unite mind and body
• Involves various postures and breathing
exercises
– Designed to increase mobility and flexibility
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Measuring Range of Motion
• Various devices have been designed to
accommodate joint sizes and
complexities of movement
• Goniometer most widely used device
– Protractor (degrees) that utilizes alignment
of two arms parallel to longitudinal axis of
two segments involved in motion
• Relatively accurate tool for
measurement
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• Inclinometers more
precise and highly
reliable
- Often used in
research
- Very affordable
- Can be used on a
variety of joints
Figure 4-25
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Fitness Assessments
• Provides coaching and athletic training
personnel with information relative to
fitness and preparedness
– Baseline information
• Pre-testing and post-testing format
should be utilized
• Can assess all facets of training and
conditioning with established tests and
protocols
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Periodization in Training
and Conditioning
• Traditional seasons no longer exist
for serious athletes
• Periodization
– Achieve peak performance
– Decrease injuries and overtraining
– Program that spans various seasons
– Modify program relative to athlete’s needs
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Macrocycle
• Complete training cycle
• Seasonal approach based on
preseason, in-season, and off-season
• Changes in intensity, volume, specificity
of training occur in order to achieve
peak levels of fitness for competition
• Broken into mesocycles (lasting weeks
or months)
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Mesocycles
• Transition period:
– Follows last competition (early off-season)
– Unstructured (escape rigors of training)
• Preparatory period:
– Off-season
– Hypertrophy/endurance phase (Low
intensity with high volume)
• Allows for development of endurance base
• Lasts several weeks to 2 months
– Strength Phase
– Power Phase
• High intensity/ pre-season
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• Preparatory period (continued)
– Strength Phase
• Intensity and volume increase to moderate levels
– Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)
• Volume is decreased to allow adequate recovery
• Competition period:
– May last a < week or several months for
seasonal sports
– High intensity, low volume, skill training
sessions
– May incorporate microcycles (1-7 days)
• Designed to ensure peak on days of competition
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Cross Training
• Training for a sport with substitutions of
alternative activities (carryover value)
• Useful in transition and preparatory
periods
• Can add variety to training regimen
• Should be discontinued prior to
preseason as it is not sport-specific
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.