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From barter (goods for goods) to money economy Reopening of trade commerce with Asia from the Crusades (Italian city states grew wealthy) Venice, Genoa, and Pisa Italian merchants became middlemen in trade between Asia and Europe 1. 2. 3. Southern route: via water. From Arabian Sea to Red Sea and then overland to the Nile River and then to the Mediterranean Central Route: Land and Sea Travel. Goods carried to Persian Gulf by boat, then transported to Baghdad or Damascus by caravan. Traders brought to Mediterranean and Black Seas. Northern Route: Silk Road. Overland route across Central Asia connecting Beijing and Constantinople. Medieval Trade Flanders Markets: prime centers for trade Once per week, traders met along highways, in church courtyards, or in village squares. Place where serfs could sell surplus goods (make additional monies, buy freedom) Trade fairs: annual and lasted several days to weeks. Most famous, held at Champagne in France (Count of Champagne granted safe conduct and free passage to all merchants passing through his land, while other states put taxes on goods entering and leaving). http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1 250medfairs.html In paragraph, summarize your impressions of a medieval fair. What were the smells and sounds someone might find at a European fair in the 1200’s? Money became means of exchange Towns and lords began coining their own money: Certain coins became standards: Florin of Florence, for example. Credit: lending money in exchange for high interest. moneychanger 1. could uncover counterfeit currency 2. determined currency value 3. accepted deposits from their clients and became money lenders. 4. exchanged currency Bills of Exchange (letters of credit): Written contracts with no use of cash money. 14th century. Italians took over role as money lenders and issued letters of credit. Main competition was from the Knights Templar, an organization established to protect pilgrims going to the Holy Land. Jews engaged in money lending, but over time, received a bad reputation because they often had to hound to get repaid. Teaching of church discouraged economic activity Poverty was upheld as a virtue Considered selfish and rebellious for one to try to improve status of life or to involve oneself in trade solely for profit. “just price”: a price that included cost of materials, a fair return for labor, and a reasonable profit. No usury: the practice of charging interest for the use of lent money. According to the church, anyone borrowing money was in great need. A loan should be an act of charity, not a money making venture. Revival of trade ended these restrictions. Merchants borrowed money not out of desperation, but for business investment. More people in Europe began to gain financial independence. Renewed trade stimulate the growth of towns Towns provided a) Markets b) Important centers for exchange Better farming methods led to better food production, which allowed for division of labor (some people would farm, others would make “stuff”: craftsman) Former Roman cities Locations important to trade: crossroads, bridges, fords, river mouths, and harbors. Others built near castles, churches, and monasteries Townsmen joined together to gain freedom from feudal lord and to start self-government. Paid for them Other lords gave these privileges without cost (sales taxes and tolls were revenue sources) Charter: Granted townspeople certain privileges or rights designated by feudal lord Free Status: Must live in a town one year and a day to be considered “free” Exemption from Manorial Obligations: No labor for the lord of the manor, but sometimes had financial obligations to the lord. Town Justice: Administered their own. No longer tried in a feudal court. Commercial Privileges : Right to buy and sell freely in the town market. Medieval Guilds: A Goldsmith’s Shop Crest of a Cooper’s Guild Organization to regulate commercial and business activity of a given town. Gained strength in numbers Discouraged outside competition Increased profits Helped members in need (established schools, cared for the poor, widows, and orphans) Merchant: Guarded trade interest of merchants by giving a monopoly of a town’s trade. Guild limited outsiders from doing business except upon paying of a heavy fee. Fixed prices at which goods could be bought and sold. Socialistic (Promoted the group rather than the individual. Not Capitalistic) Craft: Regulated business hours, wages, and number of employees hired. Guaranteed quality of their products. Punished members who used shoddy materials, dealt dishonestly, or sold goods cheaper than the established price. Apprentice: entered home of master craftsman. Food, lodging, and training in return for hardwork. To age 16 or 17. Journeyman: “Day Laborer.” Seek employment and earn wages as a skilled worker. 2-7 years. Stayed at master’s home and worked in his shop. Master: Had to have money to open own ship. Had to take an oral exam, present example of work (master piece) and take Medieval Guilds Guild Hall Commercial Monopoly: Controlled membership apprentice journeyman master craftsman Controlled quality of the product [masterpiece]. Controlled prices 70 German cities on the Baltic who sought to control in the region. Overtime, became a powerful political force. Negotiated treaties Maintained own navy Waged war against other countries. Merchants, bankers, craftsmen, and skilled laborers. Middle class: Burgers in Germany Burgesses in England Bourgeois in France Freedom and money from commercial enterprises, particularly trade *helped end feudalism and shape modern society by pushing for central governmental rule because they saw tolls and local sales taxes as hindering wide spread trade. Small, about 5,000 people Surrounded by thick walls Houses were crowded together along narrow streets Four or five story high houses Dark, crooked and filthy streets Garbage into open gutters lining the road. Poor sanitation caused disease and epidemics spread rapidly, carried throughout the town by the pigs, rats, and dogs that roamed the streets Center of activity was the town square Scholasticism: new intellectual method that presented a new and innovative way to how scholars read, wrote, and taught Scholars would consult the most important religious and intellectual texts (Bible, church fathers, papal letters, etc) Looked for things where there was disagreement among these documents Line them up, yes or no. Through a dialectic (method of argument) process, try to resolve the controversy. Example, what do these texts say about cheating? Do some say its always wrong, sometimes wrong, or always right? How does one do this? 1. Philological analysis: split hairs. (These texts use words in different ways) 2. Formal logical analysis: (Contradictions are in the eye of the beholder Tried to explain the Christian Faith (Faith) by using the writings of the ancient Greek and Romans (Reason) Hoped to explain Christianity with reason Aristotle, Greek Philosopher Averroes, Muslim commentator on Aristotle Before Scholastic learning, there was monastic learning. Monastic education was essentially passive: Monks were not supposed to question the texts they studied. Stayed away from reading too many classical texts that might lead one to heretical ideas (Roman and Greek) Monks were to sit passively and have material read to them (Lectio, Latin for lecture) Questions were not posed to the person reading the Lectio. Monks wrote works to aid the reader with reading other texts, especially the Bible (Helpful annotations) They would write about the underlying spiritual significance of passage. They wrote in a meditative and associative manner (stream of consciousness, not argumentative) Leap to another text that reminds them of another passage (little logical connection) Students wanted to be taught. A new emphasis on education was needed. School rooms in the reviving towns had to reflect the urban ideals ( a desire to learn) Towns were places where people could speak, haggle and disagree. Trade and commercial enterprise demanded a more educated population. New education based on argument, not meditation Europe’s contact with Byzantium and Arabs exposed them to the classical texts. 1. Questiones (Questions) Scholastics would organize their works around problems Should one believe in the sacraments, for example. Pro and Con. Then resolve Problem with questions: scattershot and haphazard 2. Summa: an attempt to give systematic exposition of the Christian Faith (Answer questions in logical fashion) Summa Theologica (Aquinas) 1. Morning: old monastic style lectio (lecture) Read from one of the classics, (Aristotle’s Republic) The Magister (teacher) would read. Explain what the words meant. 2. Afternoon (Disputatio) a. Ordinary: question disputed beforehand (teacher could prepare) b. Quodlibetal (whatever) listeners could propose any questions i. Teacher would take a position (response) Teacher would cite texts that would support this position) ii. Students/audience members/other faculty walking by would challenge the teacher with alternative viewpoints from other sources iii. Turn into rowdy affairs (Try to knock the teacher down) iv. A thankless student took notes V. Teacher took transcript home: Attempts to give a final answer (Determinatio) Determination 1. Anselm 2. Peter Abelard 3. St. Thomas Aquinas Founder of Scholasticism “Nor do I seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand. For this, too, I believe, that, unless I first believe, I shall not understand.” Anselm held that faith precedes reason, but that reason can expand upon faith. Lived a life full of trouble Enjoyed disputation and used his incredible public speaking skills to make a name for himself At University of Paris, Abelard flaunted debating skills and picked fights with teachers. Established own school and recruited students away from University of Paris. Famous Work, Sic et Non (Yes and No) written in 1122. 160-170 questions. Church fathers versus bible (didn’t try to reconcile differences) gave guidelines: Textbook: how to reconcile these apparent contradictions History of My Misfortunes (autobiography) Fell in love with Heloise, one of the most learned women in Paris Penned love ballads Heloise’s father Fulbert had Abelard castrated when Abelard sent her away to a nunnery Abelard’s critics of Sic et non were saying that Abelard suggested that these discrepancies could not be resolved (Unfair accusation) Wrote a treatise on the Trinity: (hands off topic) Conservatives attacked Abelard led by Bernard of Clairvaux. Abelard had to burn the books on the Trinity. Before the age of 50, underwent mystical experience and stopped writing. Leaves behind Summa Theologica: Church teachings could be arrived at through reason. Aquinas advanced notions that were at odds with St. Augustine (monastic, old style of learning) a. politics: Augustine: state/government all were consequence of original sin. “That without justice, states were bands of robbers.” Aquinas: State/political organizations not tainted. b. human salvation: Augustine: predestination. Individuals could not merit their own salvation. God chooses to give grace to some, and not to others. Aquinas accepts weaker form of predestination. Fore knowledge of what one is going to do. God knows what you are going to do, but you have the ability to choose. c. human knowledge: : Augustine: argued that human beings could not know anything without illumination abilities. Aquinas, one did not need divine illumination. Human beings could learn a lot. Potential through observation. 5 proofs that God existed. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mz_i GGGMddw&feature=related 1. Eternality of the World Christianity: the world was created and will end Classical Texts: No end of world 2. Nature of God: Aristotle: believed one god was more powerful than others. God was not all powerful or all knowing. Doesn’t actually do very much. Could not interfere with the material world. It would be beneath him. Aristotle’s higher God sat around contemplating, but paid no attention to human activity. Christian God: knows what people is doing. Actively intervenes. 3. Immortality of Individual Soul Aristotle: believes everyone does not have their own soul (no individual soul) Human beings can’t be punished after death Christianity: everyone has individual soul and can be sent to hell Bernard of Clairvaux thought a. Scholastics wrestled with problems too big for men to tackle (accused Abelard “of trying to stare into the divine mystery.”) b. Why was it necessary to add to the bible or biblical texts? c. Why was it necessary to add logical analysis? d. Scholastics were blamed for trusting too much of themselves and relied too much on non-Christian intellectual authorities. Fragmented and Disjointed 1. Monastic schools A. (internal: educated monks) B. (external: educated school children who lived nearby) Curriculum: chanting, for example. In countryside and difficult to get to. 3. Primary schools: reading and writing 4. Grammar schools: advanced training in languages Highest levels: (consisted of one faculty member) 5. Cathedral schools: each bishop should operate a school Many teachers were independent contractors: not advantageous for students, for teachers, or for religious groups. People were fragmented and spread out throughout Europe as they had to often move for their education. School language was Latin. Many students had to travel to foreign countries. Latin was not useful in everyday life: Most foreign students were price gouged because they couldn’t speak the language. Teachers were foreign. Disadvantaged because they couldn’t speak the language. Competition was fierce. Abelard wanted to open up classrooms adjacent to other schools (dog eat dog) Supervision for the church was difficult: Easier to check up if teachers were not scattered around so as to supervise proper doctrine. Medieval Universities Oxford University No campus or buildings University was a corporation of individuals Classes held in apartments, churches, etc. Universities would move if towns began to charge too much for food or lodging Church liked the idea of universities for supervision purposes Teachers liked it because they worked for one organization Run by Teachers (magistri). Most teachers were paid by the church. Didn’t rely on student gifts. Free of student control. Run by Students Teachers had to rely on student fees Teacher had to post bond if they wanted to leave for the weekend (guarantee to come back) Teachers were fined for the following: a. Failed to attract 5 students to class b. Failed to keep up syllabus c. Fined for being late to class At beginning of school, one student negotiated with other students for teacher’s fee. 7 Liberal Arts Quadrivium: content of knowledge (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory) Trivium: expression of knowledge: grammar, logic, rhetoric (speaking) More time was spent more on trivium, particularly logic 4 Different faculties 1. Arts 2. Law 3. Medicine 4. Theology BA: bachelor of Arts MA: Master of Arts Then proceed to a doctorate of Law, Medicine, or Theology. Most prestigious was Theology. Permitted to do some teaching. Lectio, Disputatio with a BA and under the supervision of a master. Could teach on your own with a Masters: pair of gloves and a beretta (hat) All students took the same courses. NO electives. The only choice difference was teachers. Organized and taught by specific books. The Physics of Aristotle. Students entered the university at age 14 or 15. Took longer to earn a degree. Bachelor: 6 years Doctor: 12 years Classes start at 5AM or 6AM Student life could be raucous. Students could be dangerous. All university students were given the status of clerics (bald spot on your head). Important legal privilege: physical protection. Public could not assault clergy: People who did were excommunicated. University students knew they couldn’t be hit: Brawled with towns people. Right to be tried in church courts: Church courts were going to be more sympathetic with no corporal punishment. Towns were eager to control their student populations. No Women since they can’t be clerics of the church. Roger Bacon questioned prior suppositions Observation Experimentation These were necessary as tests for scientific conclusions. Science began to move away from mystery and superstition Official language of the university Official language of the Roman Catholic Church Not the language of the common people Vernacular: common language (German, English, French, Spanish) Beowulf Dante: Divine Songs Comedy A journey through hell purgatory and paradise of Roland Song of Nibelungs El Cid Troubadors: wandering minstrels popularized the vernacular in lyric poetry Chaucer: The Canterbury Tales: A collection of stories by pilgrims on their way to pilgrimage. http://mrmunoz.info/britlit/CTvideos.ht ml Romanesque Architectural Style (6th to 10th Barrel vaults centuries) Thick Walls Darker, simplistic interiors. Semi-circular arches Small windows, usually at the top of the wall. Gothic Architectural Style (12th to 16th centuries) eHigh, narrow vaults. e Thinner walls. e Flying buttresses. e Elaborate, ornate, airier interiors. e Stained-glass windows. “Flying” Buttresses House of Lancaster (Red Rose) (Henry VI) went insane in 1453 House of York (White Rose) (Richard, Duke of York) became regent. Fought 13 battles between 1455 and 1471 Henry Tudor defeated Richard III at the battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 and established the Tudor Dynasty (King Henry VII) Recovering of the Iberian peninsula from the Moors (Muslims) Rise of kingdoms of Aragon, Castille and Lyon, and Portugal Spain was created with the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille married. Spanish Inquistion Reconquista completed in 1492. Cortes: Spanish representative body or nobles, clergy, and townspeople. Not unified Geographic expressions Italy (city states) Germany: (small states emerged as powerful expressions) Golden Bull: established the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire 7 electors: 3 archbishops and 4 noble princes who selected the German emperor Hapsburgs from Austria controlled Holy Roman Emperor since 1438. Emperor Maximilian I: enlarged the Hapsburg territory under control through marriage. Modern Belgium and Holland Milan Spain and its possessions through marriage Founded by Peter Waldo Philosophy similar to St. Francis Publically preached a message of poverty as the way to perfection according to their own understanding of scripture Pope insisted preaching needed authority from local clergy: Waldensians refused 1211: 80 burned at the stake in PETER WALDO BURNING OF HERETICS Pope Boniface VIII vs. Philip the Fair (King of France) Boniface VIII tried to act like Innocent III and conducted himself like a head of state (Interested in secular (nonreligious) and foreign affairs BONIFACE VIII BONIFACE VIII 1. Philip IV began taxing clergy to finance French wars 2. Boniface opposed this (this was against traditional clerical (religious) rights. 3. Philip IV denied the exportation of money from France to Rome to pay the church. 4. Boniface agreed, but clergy only taxed during an emergency 5. A Bishop who supported Boniface, he criticized Philip, was arrested by the king 6. Boniface issues papal bull, Unam Sanctam. Unam Sanctam: “both spiritual and temporal (king) power were under the pope’s jurisdiction. Kings were subordinate to the church Philip and his chief minister were excommunicated One of the strongest statements ever made by a Pope 7. Boniface was met by supporters of the king. He was slapped in the face and died one month later of shame 8. Philip won. The secular triumphed over the religious. 9. Future popes for the next several decades would live in France and be under the control of the French kings 1309-1377 (Popes lived in Avignon, France) Papal influence declined Wealth and a focus on the temporal (secular) took place at Avignon 2 popes (Italian and a French). Divided allegiances of the church 1414-1418, church leaders met and agreed to appoint a new pope. Secured the election of Martin V and eliminated other papal candidates Healed the schism and restored the papacy to Rome.