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Chapter 5:
The Renaissance
THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
ANTICIPATORY SET
Complete a Think/Pair/Share using the following question:
 Do you think a college should train its students for a specific profession or give them a
general education for life?
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
BASIC QUESTIONS
 What was the origin, organization, curriculum, and influence of the university on
Medieval European society?
 What was the methodology of Scholasticism?
KEY IDEAS
 As the demand for education grew, teachers in the north of Europe formed guilds
to protect their interests; in the south of Europe, students from different regions
formed nations to protect their interests and administer the university. Students
heard books, and more advanced students debated their professors. Studium generale
included philosophy, theology, law, medicine, and the liberal arts; the liberal arts
consisted of the trivium (grammar, logic, and rhetoric) and the quadrivium (arithmetic,
geometry, astronomy, and music). Students could then go on to receive a doctorate
in law, medicine, or theology. The universities educated tens of thousands.
 Scholasticism (science of the schools) collected statements about a subject, including
contradictory ones, and tried to harmonize them using reason. St. Thomas Aquinas
reconciled Aristotelian thought with Divine Revelation, creating a synthesis of faith
and reason that became standard for Catholic thinking.
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Mini-lecture on the seeming contradiction between faith and philosophy.
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How were schools reorganized, and what was the difference
between schools in the north and the south of Europe?
Students apprenticed to expert teachers and were awarded degrees when
they had mastered their disciplines, just as in other trade guilds. In the
north, teachers ran the schools; in the south, students did.
What was a universitas?
It was a corporation that protected the educational and administrative
interests of its members, namely, the faculty.
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How was the University of Bologna organized?
Students from various regions organized into nations, and each elected a rector. The rector led the
nation and helped administer the university in conjunction with rectors from other nations.
How was the University of Paris organized?
Originally, the chancellor awarded licenses to faculty and academic degrees to graduates. To
protect their interests the teachers banded together to form the universitas. As studies became
more specialized, the universitas separated into faculties with a dean leading each. The deans
elected a rector who was the head of all faculties and the university.
How were the liberal arts divided?
There were seven liberal arts divided into two categories. The trivium was made up of grammar,
logic, and rhetoric. The more advanced quadrivium included the mathematical disciplines:
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music.
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
Complete the following table about the seven liberal arts (cf. p. 188).
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Work with a partner to perform a paragraph shrink on the Catechism,
no. 159 (p. 236).
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What degrees were offered?
Those who mastered the trivium received a Bachelor of Arts degree.
Mastering the quadrivium earned a Master of Arts. A student could also
continue to study to earn a doctorate in law, medicine, or theology.
What was the role of debate?
Masters and doctoral students learned by debating their professors about
the subjects they were studying.
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What are the four Books of Sentences?
These works of Peter Lombard are comprehensive collections and
discussions of the Church Fathers whose aim is to achieve a rational
understanding of all questions relating to Revelation.
How were Aristotle’s works introduced into the West?
They were known through the Arab scholars Averroes and Avicenna.
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
With what university is St. Thomas Aquinas associated?
He studied and taught at the University of Paris.
What is the Summa Theologiæ?
This greatest work of St. Thomas Aquinas is a systematic examination of
the fundamental beliefs of Christianity.
What position of Averroes was most problematic?
He held the double truth theory.
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What is the double truth theory?
Philosophical truth, which is based on logical demonstration, is superior to
theological truth, which is based on opinion. A person can accept contradictory
truths, philosophy being superior.
What was St. Thomas’s answer to the double truth theory?
He rejected it. St. Thomas held that theology, based on Divine Revelation, was
superior to philosophy (philosophy is the handmaiden of theology) because of the
absolute veracity of Revelation. Theology can guide, correct, and modify
philosophical principles. There can never be a real division between philosophical
and theological truths because there is one truth. If there appears to be a
contradiction, philosophy must submit to the guidance of theology.
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What effect did the Crusades have on the universities?
Because of the Crusades, many books and ideas previously unknown in
the West were discovered. These were incorporated into university studies.
What was the impact of the University of Paris?
Distinguished youth and future churchmen from every part of Europe
studied there.
How many students were enrolled in universities?
There were as many students as townspeople in Paris. In Bologna, there
were some 10,000 students. Even more were estimated at Oxford.
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
For what purpose did St. Thomas use Aristotelian philosophy?
St. Thomas used Aristotelian philosophy to explain theology.
Was St. Thomas’s thought immediately accepted?
No; most thinkers were apprehensive about Aristotle.
What did Bl. John Duns Scotus try to do?
He tried to compromise between St. Thomas and St. Augustine.
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Some people claim that God cannot exist because there is evil in the world.
Read aloud Objection 1 and St. Thomas’s Reply to Objection 1, and then
discuss the following questions:
 What is the core argument in the objection and the reply?
 Do you think St. Thomas demonstrates that the existence of evil is compatible with
an infinitely good God?
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How was St. Thomas as a young student?
He could listen to a lesson and repeat it with more depth and clarity than
the teacher.
How did St. Thomas’s family react to his desire to be a Dominican?
His brothers locked him in the family castle and hired a woman to seduce
him.
Why did St. Thomas’s fellow students at Cologne call him a dumb
ox?
He was large and quiet, which they mistook for a lack of intelligence.
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT




Study Questions 1–13 (p. 234)
Practical Exercise 1 (p. 236)
Workbook Questions 1–31
Read “The Mendicant Orders” through “Medieval Architecture”
(pp. 192–201)
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
CLOSURE
Free write for five minutes about St. Thomas Aquinas’s contribution to
Catholic theology.
1. Universities and Scholasticism (pp. 184–192)
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
Discuss the following question:
 Should colleges today return to providing a single curriculum that all students should
master, or should they continue to specialize?
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
ANTICIPATORY SET
Spend a few minutes analyzing the photographs of Gothic cathedrals
(pp. 199–201).
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
BASIC QUESTIONS
 What is the story of St. Francis of Assisi, and what were his contributions?
 What is the story of St. Dominic, and what were his contributions?
 How did architecture, literature, and the fine arts develop in the Middle Ages?
KEY IDEAS
 St. Francis embraced a radical poverty in imitation of Christ and attracted
thousands of followers, who preached the Gospel to the poor and helped renew
the Faith.
 St. Dominic founded a mendicant order dedicated to preaching and education; it
was enormously influential in the renewal of Medieval society.
 Catholics of the Middle Ages created soaring cathedrals that are magnificent
religious works of art; vernacular literature, which reflected both everyday life and
eternal truths; and religious paintings that set the stage for Renaissance art.
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What does “mendicant” mean?
From the Latin mendicare (to beg), mendicants practiced poverty and
survived by begging.
What was the focus of the Franciscans, and what was the focus of
the Dominicans?
Franciscans preached the Gospel to the poor and lived a radical poverty
to reflect the love of Christ. Dominicans were dedicated to teaching and
learning and produced great intellectuals.
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Work with a partner to discuss problems likely to arise with a religious
order in which thousands of friars living in cities were forbidden to own
any property or accumulate any wealth. Keep in mind the friars needed to
live, carry out their work, and receive an education.
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How did St. Francis receive his vocation?
He was praying and doing penance when he heard God’s voice telling him,
“Rebuild my Church.”
How did St. Francis’s father and the townspeople of Assisi treat him?
His father beat him for wasting his money, disinherited him, and wanted the law
to punish him. The townspeople threw rocks at him and mocked him as a
madman.
What happened when St. Francis’s father dragged him before the local
bishop?
St. Francis stripped almost naked and said, from now on, his only father would
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How was St. Francis as a young man, and what happened when he
realized his dream of becoming a soldier?
He loved to have a good time with his friends and dreamed of being a
crusader. During his first battle, he was wounded and spent many months
ill in captivity.
How did imprisonment change St. Francis?
He began to pray and meditate on the life of Christ, which led him to
turn away from his worldly life.
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How did St. Francis live after he had disowned his father?
He lived alone in the hills, fasting and praying.
Who is Lady Poverty?
St. Francis said he was married to Lady Poverty. It expressed his romantic love for
living poverty.
What did St. Francis do when he heard the Gospel passage in which Christ
gave his Apostles instructions on how to preach?
He took the instructions literally. He preached without shoes, cloak, staff, and money.
He wore a brown peasant’s tunic and preached to and begged with the poor.
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How was the Franciscan Order founded, and what was its first
Rule?
The order began when two men joined St. Francis in his travels and way
of life. For their Rule, St. Francis listed the passages in the Gospels in
which Christ asked his followers to give away their property and live a life
of poverty.
Why did Pope Innocent III accept St. Francis?
Pope Innocent III had a dream in which a poor man was holding up the
Basilica of St. John Lateran, the cathedral of the Diocese of Rome.
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
To what Sacrament was St. Francis devoted especially?
St. Francis was devoted especially to the Eucharist. He asked everyone to
be more devoted to the Eucharist and everything associated with it,
including celebrating Mass reverently, keeping churches clean, and having
beautiful vessels.
How many Franciscans existed at the end of St. Francis’ life?
There were nearly 5000.
What special grace did St. Francis receive?
He received the stigmata, the wounds of Christ’s Passion.
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What problem did the Franciscans face after St. Francis’s death?
Thousands of Franciscans needed a practical way to survive in the cities while
living the spirit of poverty.
Why is St. Bonaventure called the “second founder” of the
Franciscans?
St. Bonaventure solved the Franciscans’ problem of how to survive without
property.
Might the Franciscans have survived without St. Bonaventure’s
arrangement?
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
In what way did the Albigensian heretics seem more Christlike than
Catholics?
The Albigensians preached extreme poverty. This seemed to honor the example
of Christ more than the lax morals exhibited by many clerics of the day.
How was the Albigensian heresy harmful to the human person?
Its adherents taught that marriage and conception—even life itself—were evils,
whereas suicide, abortion, and homosexual acts were acceptable.
How was the Albigensian heresy harmful to the Catholic Faith?
This heresy rejected the priesthood and the Sacraments. Therefore, its adherents
denied themselves the benefits of the Sacraments during their time on earth.
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
Why were St. Dominic and his followers called the Order of
Preachers?
St. Dominic sent them out in pairs into cities to live and preach to the
people.
What was St. Dominic’s secret weapon?
The Rosary was his weapon.
How popular was the Order of Preachers compared to the
Franciscans?
Their numbers were small, but their preaching and scholarship had a
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How did St. Dominic become a preacher to the Albigensians?
The Abbot of Citeaux in Southern France complained to a Spanish bishop
and his canon (St. Dominic) about how hard it was to convert people back to
the Catholic Faith from Albigensianism. The two said that the example of the
preacher was just as important as his words. Because Christ’s disciples
preached barefoot without a staff or money, the two Spanish travelers
decided to do the same.
Why was St. Dominic interested in education?
He believed that a preacher needed a solid intellectual basis to convert the
Albigensians.
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What is the Romanesque style of architecture?
Based on the form of a Roman basilica, a Romanesque building is built in the shape
of a cross with round, stone vaults. It is a heavy, long-lasting structure.
What idea gave rise to Gothic architecture?
Gothic architecture is based on Christ as the Light of the World.
What is the Gothic style of architecture?
Architects developed ways to raise roofs higher and support their weight without
using thicker walls. The walls, then, could be opened with huge banks of windows.
These windows were filled with stained glass, which both illustrated stories from the
Bible and filled the halls with colored light.
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Search the Internet for photographs and descriptions of other Gothic
churches.
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Search the Internet for a gallery of the works of Giotto.
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT
 Study Questions 14–26 (p. 235)
 Workbook Questions 32–54
 Read “Pope St. Celestine V” through “St. Joan of Arc” (pp. 202–210)
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
CLOSURE
Free write for five minutes using the following question:
 If you had to choose between joining the Franciscans and the Dominicans, which
would you choose, and why?
2. Mendicants and the Flowering of
Culture (pp. 192–201)
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
Write a paragraph about the Franciscan ideal of poverty and how it was
lived in the early days.
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
ANTICIPATORY SET
Work with a partner to read “St. Joan of Arc’s Impossible Mission”
(p. 209), and then write an answer to the following question:
 How was St. Joan of Arc able to convince the King of France to let her lead a
French army?
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
BASIC QUESTIONS
 Why did the influence of the papacy diminish and the move toward state churches increase
during the fourteenth century?
 What was the Hundred Years War, and what was St. Joan of Arc’s role therein?
KEY IDEAS
 Beginning at the end of the thirteenth century, a succession of weak Popes and political
instability in Italy resulted in the papacy becoming “captive” to the king of France. Popes
resided in Avignon for seventy years. The domination of the papacy by French Popes—
residing in France, elected by French cardinals, and under the thumb of a French king—
caused the English kings and German emperors to see the papacy as a French rather than an
international religious office. The ever-appealing idea that the secular ruler should control
the Church and her wealth led to a resurgence of the doctrine of Gallicanism in France;
English laws set the foundation for a state-controlled Church, and the German emperor
harbored antipapal agitators.
 Hostilities between France and England broke the Truce of God, resulting in the Hundred
Years War in which Christian slaughtered Christian; the French finally prevailed thanks to the
aid of St. Joan of Arc.
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What kind of Pope was St. Celestine V?
This 80-year-old man was beloved by the people for his simple, holy life, but he was not
competent to run the Church. He resigned within five months.
Why did Pope Boniface VIII arrest St. Celestine?
Pope Boniface was afraid this abdicated Pope would be used by schismatic groups to
oppose him.
Was Pope Boniface VIII a successful diplomat?
No; he tried unsuccessfully to force the lords and princes of the Christian kingdoms to
accept his temporal authority.
Why did Pope Boniface VIII carry two swords in procession?
He claimed to wield both the spiritual and temporal powers; that is, he was had authority
over the Church and over kings.
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
Where is Avignon?
It is a city in southern France on the Rhone River near the Mediterranean
Sea.
Who was Peter Murrone?
He was an 80-year-old hermit who was elected Pope St. Celestine V.
Why was St. Celestine V offered the papacy?
He was a saintly and beloved hermit, and the papal see had been vacant
for two years due to political infighting.
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How did the papacy lose its international prestige during the time in Avignon?
The kings of other Christian nations saw the Pope as a pawn of the French king.
How did the idea develop that individual nations should control the Church?
In England laws to this effect were enacted. In Germany the emperor harbored antipapal agitators to protect himself from French influence over the universal Church;
this resurfaced during the Protestant Reformation.
How did St. Clement V further weaken the papacy’s authority?
He retracted Pope Boniface VIII’s Clericis Laicos, which claimed that kings could not
tax the Church without the Pope’s permission, and reinterpreted Unam Sanctam,
stripping the document of any claims to temporal authority.
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What is Gallicanism?
Gallicanism is a movement that arose under King Philip the Fair; it claimed that a king’s
authority extends to all ecclesiastical affairs in his realm.
What did Pope Boniface VIII hope to accomplish by having written Unam
Sanctam?
He hoped it would prompt King Philip the Fair to submit to him.
Was Pope Boniface VIII successful in controlling King Philip?
No; King Philip convened the Estates General, which charged Boniface with crimes and
deposed him; he was arrested and died.
What was the aftermath of the death of Pope Boniface VIII?
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
Complete the following table according to Unam Sanctam (pp. 204– 205).
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How did the Popes come to reside in Avignon?
Pope St. Clement V, who had been a French archbishop, settled in Avignon because
of the chaos in Rome.
How long was the Avignon papacy?
It lasted seventy years.
How were the Knights Templar suppressed?
Pope St. Clement V permitted an Inquisition of the Knights Templar, and the king
had them tortured to obtain false confessions. Many of the Templars were put to
death; King Philip seized half their property; and the Pope suppressed the order.
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
Did the Hundred Years War consist of a century of continuous
warfare?
No; it was a series of short battles with long periods of peace.
What was the Battle of Crecy?
In 1346 an outnumbered English army defeated the French knights.
What superior weapon was employed by the English at Crecy?
The English used the longbow, a new, armor-piercing weapon that could
shoot an arrow 400 yards.
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
Why did many peasants move to cities after the Battle of Crecy, and what was the
result?
They moved into walled cities for protection. When the plague broke out, they died in
great numbers.
What kept France from gaining a decisive victory in 1380?
A civil war erupted in France and the insane, twelve-year-old Charles VI took the throne.
What was the result of the Battle of Agincourt?
In 1415 King Henry V of England defeated the French. He declared himself King of
France and married the French princess Catherine. He died after only two years, leaving
the realm to his infant son. After this, young, incompetent, and partially mad kings ruled
France under England’s thumb.
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Search the Internet for descriptions of the Battle of Crecy and perhaps a
simulation of the lines of battle.
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
Why did both France and England desire to control Flanders?
Flanders was a wealthy trading area. Extension: It was a vassal of France, but
England declared it under her own protection.
What was the immediate cause of the Hundred Years War?
The French king Charles IV died without a clear heir in 1328. A French
nobleman and an English king each claimed the crown for himself.
What was the military distinction of the Battle of Castillon (1453)?
The first effective use of gunpowder, employed in muskets and canons, was
realized when French gunners defeated the English army.
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
Would it be true to say that France and England were ruled
separately during the Middle Ages?
No; William the Conqueror, a Norman, conquered England in 1066.
Through matrimonial alliances, English kings inherited large tracts of
French land.
How did the French kings irritate England?
They supported Scottish nobles rebelling against the English kings and
encouraged piracy in the English Channel.
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How was St. Joan betrayed by King Charles?
He did not attempt to ransom her.
How was St. Joan vindicated?
Twenty-five years after her execution, the Pope lifted her sentence. She
became a national hero for the French, who soon thereafter retook almost
all French territory. She was beatified in 1909 and canonized in 1920.
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
Describe the mystical experiences of St. Joan of Arc.
She heard voices and saw visions of angels and saints.
What evidence exists that these experiences came from God?
St. Joan was examined by doctors and bishops for insanity and heresy. Her
visions came true, e.g., the French were defeated at Herrings, she liberated
Orleans, and Charles VII was crowned. She was able to discern the
identity of the true king despite his disguise.
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT
 Study Questions 27–35 (p. 235)
 Workbook Questions 55–77
 Read “Return to Rome and Schism” through “Jan Hus” (pp. 210–215)
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
CLOSURE
Complete a Think/Pair/Share using the following question:
 Is there any precedent from the first 1300 years of Christianity to defend
Defensor Pacis?
3. Avignon and the Hundred Years
War (pp. 202–210)
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
Write a paragraph summarizing the Hundred Years War.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
ANTICIPATORY SET
Mini-lecture: Mysticism.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
BASIC QUESTIONS
 How did the Western Schism occur, and how was it resolved?
 What proto-Protestant heresies arose in the fourteenth century, and where did they
find support?
KEY IDEAS
 The French-dominated College of Cardinals, having elected an Italian Pope under
pressure, declared the election invalid and elected a Frenchman, resulting in the
Western Schism. The schism lasted forty years and was resolved by a council.
 In conjunction with heretical doctrines such as Gallicanism, Defensor Pacis, and
Conciliarism, three proto-Protestant advocates arose. William of Ockham, John
Wycliffe, and Jan Hus not only criticized clergy abuses but also assailed the
hierarchical, doctrinal, and sacramental nature of the Church. Because they favored
the dominance of the temporal ruler over the Church and her ecclesiastical
property, they received support from kings and emperors.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What was remarkable about St. Catherine as a girl?
St. Catherine consecrated her virginity to Christ when she was seven and
enjoyed mystical experiences throughout childhood. She joined the
Dominicans at age sixteen.
What is the spiritual espousal of St. Catherine?
She had a vision in which Christ, the Blessed Virgin Mary, and saints and
angels appeared to her. Christ took her soul to be his bride.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Search the Internet for St. Catherine of Siena’s Dialogue of Divine Providence
and read an excerpt from it.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
Why did St. Catherine enter public life?
She had a vision in which God asked her to help “heal the wounds of the Church.”
How did St. Catherine carry out her public life?
She wrote letters to public figures and helped convince Pope Gregory XI to return to
Rome. She attempted unsuccessfully to negotiate peace between Florence and other
Italian city-states, even at the risk of assassination.
How did St. Catherine unite herself to the sufferings of Christ, and what is
remarkable about her corpse?
She asked Christ to allow her to suffer for the sins of the world and to bring unity to
the Church. After her death, the stigmata appeared, and her body is incorrupt.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Mini-lecture: William of Ockham
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Complete the following table about some Protestant heresies.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How long was the Avignon papacy?
The Popes lived in Avignon for seventy years.
What nationality were the cardinals who elected the successor of
Pope Gregory XI?
They were all French.
What did the mob of Romans demand of the conclave?
They demanded an Italian Pope.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What is Conciliarism?
This heresy claims that the authority of an Ecumenical Council is superior to that
of the Pope and that an Ecumenical Council can depose and elect Popes.
What was the result of the Pisan Council?
This elected a second Antipope; there were then three claimants to the papacy.
How did the Western Schism end?
Emperor Sigismund forced Antipope John XXIII to call the Council of
Constance and resign. Pope Gregory XII agreed to resign if the Council of
Constance recognized that he had been the legitimate Pope. The Antipope in
France refused to participate and lost support. Pope Gregory’s abdication made
possible the election of Pope Martin V.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Work with a partner to list the three requirements for the validity of an
Ecumenical Council according to the Council of Ferrara-Florence.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
According to the electors, was the election free and fair?
Yes; they reported that Urban VI was elected “freely and unanimously.”
Why did the French cardinals dislike Urban VI?
He was not docile to their wishes. He was harsh and critical toward moral
abuses, criticizing the cardinals for being materialistic and worldly.
How did the schism begin?
The French cardinals claimed that they had elected Urban VI out of fear
and thus the election was invalid. They then elected Antipope
Clement VII in his stead.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
Work with a partner to complete the following table on perennial
philosophy and nominalism.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How did the Avignon Popes weaken the authority of the Catholic Church in England?
The identification of the Popes with France made them seem to be the enemies of England.
The need for funds to fight the French made seizing Church lands in England attractive.
What was John Wycliffe’s position on the Church having wealth?
He advocated that the Church rid herself of all political power and practice strict poverty. He
said it was a sin for any sacred person (clergy or monk) to hold temporal possessions. For this
reason, the king could seize Church lands.
What were Wycliffe’s proto-Protestant views?
He attacked the authority of the Pope, rejected Scholasticism in favor of the doctrine of sola
Scriptura, believed in double predestination, denied man’s free will, and rejected the clergy and
the Sacraments.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
Why did state support for Wycliffe wane?
Peasants in England attacked both the Church and the state in the Peasant
Revolt of 1381, basically demanding freedom from serfdom and excessive
taxation. Nobles feared that Wycliffe’s justification for seizing Church
property could turn into a justification to seize the king’s wealth.
Who were the Lollards?
These people embraced John Wycliffe’s ideas in the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What did the Czechs like about Wycliffe’s ideas?
Some of them saw them as a way to achieve political freedom from Germany.
Based on the paragraph “Like Wycliffe, Hus attacked…” (p. 215), were Hus’s
complaints mainly about corruption or were they doctrinal in nature?
Hus was at odds with the Church over many doctrines such as the supremacy of private
judgment, the Scriptures as the only basis of faith, and faith alone—rather than faith and
works—as necessary for salvation.
What fate did Jan Hus meet at the Council of Constance, and how is he regarded
today among the Czech people?
He was condemned as a heretic and executed; today he is regarded a martyr for Czech
nationalism.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Complete a Think/Pair/Share using the following question:
 William of Ockham spent years under the protection of the Holy Roman emperor.
To what extent would Ockham’s political views have been welcome in the emperor’s
court?
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT




Study Questions 36–47 (p. 235)
Practical Exercises 2–3 (p. 236)
Workbook Questions 78–103
Read “The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise of the Italian Free
Cities” through “The Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence (1431–1445)
and the End of the Byzantine Empire” (pp. 215–218)
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
CLOSURE
Free write for five minutes about how Pope Urban VI might have
prevented the Western Schism.
4. Schism and the Rise of Heresy
(pp. 210–215)
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
Open-workbook quiz using one or two questions from last night’s
homework.
5. The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise
of the Italian Free Cities (pp. 215–218)
ANTICIPATORY SET
View an official copy of the bull Lætentur Cœli and read a brief history of
this document that proclaimed the agreement reached between the
Eastern and Western Churches at the Ecumenical Council of BaselFerrara-Florence:
 asv.vatican.va/en/doc/1439.htm
5. The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise
of the Italian Free Cities (pp. 215–218)
BASIC QUESTIONS
 Why did the Pope convene the Ecumenical Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence,
and what was its effect?
 What were the effects of the fall of Constantinople?
KEY IDEAS
 Pope Eugene IV and the Byzantine emperor John VIII orchestrated the
Ecumenical Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence to effect a reunification of
East and West. John VIII hoped that reunion would result in military aid for
his besieged empire.
 The Greek populace rejected the Ecumenical Council, no significant military
aid reached Constantinople, and the city fell to the Turks in 1453, ending an
1100-year Christian empire and embittering the Greeks toward the West. The
Italian city-states benefitted culturally and financially from the shift of trade
from Greece to Italy.
5. The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise
of the Italian Free Cities (pp. 215–218)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Think/Pair/Share using the following question:
 Why was the Ecumenical Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence a disappointment for
Emperor John VIII?
5. The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise
of the Italian Free Cities (pp. 215–218)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Search the Internet for Dionysios Hatzopoulos’s account of “The Fall of
Constantinople, 1453,” and read it.
5. The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise
of the Italian Free Cities (pp. 215–218)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What threat did the Byzantine Empire survive at the end of the
fourteenth century?
The Ottoman Turks laid siege to Constantinople but had to withdraw due
to Mongol attacks from the east.
How did the threat posed by the Ottoman Empire affect East-West
Church relations?
The common danger that the East and West faced from Islam drew the
hierarchs of the two sides together. The Venetians were interested
especially in good financial relations with the East. Pope Eugene IV, a
Venetian, wanted to reunite East and West to launch a unified crusade
5. The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise
of the Italian Free Cities (pp. 215–218)
GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
Work with a partner to complete the following table about the
Ecumenical Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence.
5. The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise
of the Italian Free Cities (pp. 215–218)
5. The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise
of the Italian Free Cities (pp. 215–218)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What did Pope Eugene IV want out of the Ecumenical Council of
Basel-Ferrara-Florence?
He hoped to end the Great Schism.
What did Emperor John VIII want out of the Ecumenical Council
of Basel-Ferrara-Florence?
He wanted to establish quickly a military alliance between East and West
and avoid lengthy theological discussions.
5. The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise
of the Italian Free Cities (pp. 215–218)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How did Pope Eugene IV promote dialogue between the Greek and
Latin Council Fathers?
He formed commissions made up of Greeks and Latins to draft a clear
conclusion to each issue.
What was the result of the Ecumenical Council of Basel-FerraraFlorence?
In 1439 the Council Fathers agreed to reunite the two Churches. Under
pressure from Emperor John VIII, the Greek bishops accepted the
addition of Filioque to the Creed, the existence of Purgatory, and the
5. The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise
of the Italian Free Cities (pp. 215–218)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How long did Muslim rule in Constantinople continue?
Except for a brief period after World War I, it continues to the present day.
What was the political character of the Italian city-states?
The Italian city-states were not nationalistic but small, independent republics.
Besides wielding temporal power in Italy, what did the Renaissance
Popes do?
They financed art and architecture and encouraged the founding of schools
and universities.
5. The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise
of the Italian Free Cities (pp. 215–218)
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT




Study Questions 48–52 (p. 235)
Practical Exercises 4–5 (p. 236)
Workbook Questions 104–119
Read “Humanism” through “Conclusion” (pp. 218–231)
5. The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise
of the Italian Free Cities (pp. 215–218)
CLOSURE
Write a paragraph about why the Ecumenical Council of Basel-FerraraFlorence was convened and what it accomplished.
5. The Fall of Constantinople and the Rise
of the Italian Free Cities (pp. 215–218)
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
Imagine you are a Greek Orthodox citizen of Constantinople who
escaped the city during its siege and fall. Write a letter revealing your
feelings about the recent council and the Western Church in general.
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
ANTICIPATORY SET
Discuss the following questions:
 Why was it reasonable for Medieval universities to have seen theology as the highest
area of learning, focusing more on the next world than this one?
 How might you expect university education to have changed when the student
population no longer consisted primarily of monks and clerics?
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
BASIC QUESTIONS
 What are the core values of humanism?
 Who were some of the early major humanist writers?
 Who were the major Renaissance Popes, and what were their contributions?
KEY IDEAS
 Humanism was an intellectual and literary movement; its education was based on classical literary
texts intended to make the student better, wiser, and more virtuous. Christian humanism joined an
appreciation for classical culture with the view that man is made in the image of God and has God
as his ultimate end.
 Dante’s Divine Comedy strikes a balance between a person’s earthly condition and life after death.
Petrarch was a master of Latin and vernacular love poetry. Boccaccio was a comic poet who
exposed the foibles and weaknesses in human nature. Machiavelli’s The Prince portrays an amoral
use of means to secure political power.
 While some Renaissance Popes lived moral lives, contributed to scholarship and learning, sought
reconciliation with the East, and tried to unify Christendom against the Turkish threat, others were
worldly rulers who sought political power and to build up Rome as a great city filled with beautiful
art and architecture.
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
Why did the humanists consider art the pinnacle of human
achievement?
In art, the human person could craft beautiful forms—perfect in form,
balance, and composition.
To what extent is humanism a revival of paganism?
Some humanists displayed an inordinate reverence for pagan thinkers and
writers and held a worldly outlook devoid of religion.
What is Christian humanism?
This form of humanism integrates the humanistic perspective with the
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Discuss this humanistic belief and the following question:
 A classical training alone, based on the literature and culture of classical antiquity,
could form a perfect human person.
 Do you think this belief is true?
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
FOCUS QUESTION
Why is Dante Alighieri considered both a Medieval and
Renaissance writer?
Dante lived at the end of the Middle Ages and was concerned with not
only man’s earthly condition but also his eternal destiny. Dante had a great
admiration for classical authors; though they could not go to Heaven,
Dante did not condemn them to Hell but left them in limbo in his Divine
Comedy.
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
GUIDED EXERCISE
For five minutes write a dialogue between an enthusiastic young
Renaissance humanist scholar and a second-century Christian about to be
martyred in the arena.
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Work with a partner to research an assigned Renaissance artist or work of
art. Write two sentences on a separate sheet of paper describing the artist
or work of art.
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How were the great works of the Renaissance financed?
They were commissioned by wealthy families, kings, and Popes.
What is a “Renaissance man,” and how is Michelangelo one?
A Renaissance man excels in many disciplines. Michelangelo was a great sculptor,
painter, and architect.
For what depictions of the human form is Michelangelo best known, and why
have these works endured?
He depicted the contours of the human body such that the grandeur of man comes
out with overwhelming force. Two examples are his sculpture David and the people
depicted on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Raphael was an artist who is best known for his portraits of the Madonna
(“My Lady,” i.e., the Blessed Virgin Mary) and large paintings in the
Vatican apartments.
Search the Internet for commentary and view examples of his work to
gain a better appreciation of Raphael.
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
By what title is Erasmus known?
He is called the Father of Northern Humanism.
How did Erasmus view the Middle Ages compared to the classical era?
He saw the Middle Ages and Scholasticism as unenlightened and stagnant
while holding the classical thinkers in highest esteem.
What was Erasmus’s attitude toward human virtues?
He extolled human virtues, especially prudence, intellectual honesty, zeal for
truth, and consideration for others. These led him to desire reform and
progress through education and tolerance.
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Work with a partner. Half of the pairs will research the first question and
the other half the second. To answer the question, you will need to review
St. Thomas a Becket and Machiavelli and scan the material on King
Henry VIII (pp. 252–257).
1. How are St. Thomas More and Machiavelli on opposite ends of the political
spectrum?
2. How do Sts. Thomas More and Thomas a Becket compare?
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How does the Catholic Church view St. Thomas More?
The Fathers of the Second Vatican Council held up St. Thomas as an example for all
people of the “inalienable dignity of the human conscience” (Gaudium et Spes 16). Pope
Bl. John Paul II put forth St. Thomas as an imperishable witness to moral integrity: “the
primacy of truth over power.”
What were St. Thomas’s qualifications as a humanist?
He mastered Greek and Latin and received a liberal education.
How were the circumstances surrounding humanism in northern Europe different
from those in Italy?
The North did not see significant changes in its economy, social life, and education. There
was not a rise in prosperity or a significant middle class; most of the people were rural and
poor. In the North, the new anthropocentric mindset was integrated into the Christian
outlook, the result of which was Christian humanism.
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How was Pope Nicholas V a promoter of literature?
He saved thousands of ancient texts; founded the Vatican library, which housed more
than 5000 works; and sponsored humanist writers and translators of Greek classics.
What were Pope Nicholas’s doctrinal contributions?
He finalized the condemnation of the Conciliarist heresy, won the submission of
Antipope Felix V, and sent great theologians to northern Europe to stem growing
religious dissent among the clergy and laity.
What was the result of Pope Nicholas’s political failures?
Pope Nicholas’s inability to achieve political unity in Europe made it impossible to
defend Constantinople against the Turkish threat, leading to that city’s fall in 1453.
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How was Pope Callistus III preoccupied during his pontificate?
He tried to get the princes of Europe to recognize the Turkish threat and
unite to defend Christendom.
How could Pius II’s early life be said to be an unlikely one for a future
Pope?
His early life was marked by moral laxity, a fervent embrace of pagan culture,
and support for Conciliarism against the Pope.
What was the focus of Pius II’s pontificate?
Like Callistus III, Pius II focused on overcoming the Turkish threat but was
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How did the Renaissance Popes generally live?
They lived generally like worldly princes.
How did Tommaso Parentucelli’s scholarship help communicate
effectively with Eastern Christians?
Parentucelli’s familiarity with Scholastic philosophy and the Fathers of the
Church gave him prominence among the Greek bishops who attended the
Ecumenical Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence.
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Work with a partner to identify the major tasks Pope Nicholas V
undertook; discuss the following question:
 What better tasks might Pope Nicholas V have undertaken?
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Work with a partner to identify the failures and successes of Pope
Sixtus IV.
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Research the art in Renaissance Florence and then write a paragraph
explaining the various kinds of art found there.
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT
 Study Questions 53–59 (p. 235)
 Practical Exercise 6 (p. 236)
 Workbook Questions 120–164
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
Discuss three Renaissance Popes—Innocent VIII, Alexander VI, and
Julius II—using the following questions:
 What were some of the successes and failures of these Popes?
 How can the moral failures of some Popes actually demonstrate papal infallibility?
6. Humanism and Papal Politics
(pp. 218–231)
CLOSURE
Write a paragraph explaining the origin and core views of humanism.
THE END