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Hardware: The CPU & Storage 4.1 Microchips, Miniaturization, & Mobility 4.2 The System Unit: The Basics 4.3 More on the System Unit 4.4 Secondary Storage 4.5 Future Developments in Processing & Storage 1 Chapter 4 Microchips, Miniaturization, & Mobility Vacuum Tubes vs. Transistors vacuum tube, electron tube, or thermionic valve or just valve, is a device used to amplify, switch or modify a signal by controlling the movement of electrons in an evacuated space. Vacuum tubes were the original logic gates of computers They looked like light bulbs, were hot, and burned out like them too High failure rates, damaged tubes had to be replaced for the computer to function A transistor is a switch, or gate, that can alternate between “on” and “off” many millions of times per second. Developed in 1947 by Bell Labs The original transistors were 1/100th the size of vacuum tubes (less power, faster, more reliable too) 2 Processor Basics Integrated Circuit: An entire electronic circuit formed on a single “chip” often made of silicon Microchips: AKA “industrial rice” Is a tiny piece of silicon that contains millions of microminiature electronic circuits. Store and process data. Etched on the chip via the photolithography process. Chip manufactures require very clean environment. Die on an Intel Processor 3 Processor Basics A microprocessor The miniaturized circuitry of an entire computer processor on a single chip. Contains the CPU, which processes data Microcontroller or Embedded Computer Die on an Intel Processor A microprocessor that was modified for use in a machine that isn’t a computer. 4 The System Unit: The Basics Binary System: the basic unit of computing Uses just two numbers: 0 and 1 All data and program instructions in the computer are represented as binary Bit: each 0 or 1 is a bit Byte: a group of 8 bits Kilobyte: ~1,000 (1,024) bytes Megabyte: ~1 Million (1,048,576) bytes Gigabyte: ~1 Billion (1,073,741,824) bytes Terabyte: ~ 1 Trillion (1,009,511,627,576) bytes Petabyte: ~ 1 quadrillion bytes Exabyte: ~ 1 quintillion bytes All the printed material in the world is ~ 5 exabytes 5 The System Unit: The Basics Binary coding schemes assign a unique binary code to each letter EBCDIC Requires 8 bits per character Used for IBM mainframes ASCII Requires 7 or 8 bits per character, depending on the version 8 bit Extended ASCII provides 256 characters 01000111 -> “G” Used for PCs, Unix hosts, Macs Unicode Requires 16 bits per character Handles 65,536 characters 6 The System Unit: The Basics 7 The System Unit: The Basics Computer Terms Names Definitions 1. Shell or opening used for the installation of electrical equipment. 2. This converts AC to DC to run the computer. 2. Power Supply 3. Surge Protector 3. Protects the computer from being damaged by power spikes. Plug your computer into one. 4. Voltage 4. Protects a computer against brownouts or low Regulator power conditions that happen a lot in summer. 5. Uninterruptible Power Supply. Battery-operated 5. UPS device that provides power for a time when there is a blackout. 6. The main system board of the computer. 6. Motherboard 7. Microprocessor 7. The miniaturized circuitry of a computer processor. 8. Chipset 8. Groups of interconnected chips on the motherboard that control information flow between the microprocessor and other system components connected to the motherboard. 8 1. Bay Traditional Microcomputer Microprocessor Intel Type Chips. Have a similar internal desging and are made to run PCs. Produced by Intel and AMD. Motorola Type Chips. Made by Motorola and later its subsidiary Freescale Semiconductor for Apple Macintosh computers (up to and including the Apple Mac G4). G5 Macintoshes use PowerPC family of processors (Developed by Apple, Freescale and IBM). PowerPC Chips have the advantage that with certain hardware or software configurations, a Macintosh can run PC as well as Mac applications software 9 New Microcomputer Microprocessor Intel Processor for Macintosh. Why? What happened to the software that ran in PowerPC? Is Mac OS going to run on a nonApple computer? Multicore Processors. Designed to let the operating system divide the work over more than one processor, with two or more processor “cores” in a single piece of silicon. Single core vs. multicore processors 10 Processing Speeds System Clock. Controls how fast all the operations within a computer take place. Delivers a steady stream of digital pulses or “ticks” to the CPU. This “ticks” are called cycles. Faster clock speed will result in faster processing The faster a CPU runs, the more power it consumes, and the more heat it generates The CPU Older CPUs processing speeds are in MegaHertz 1 MHz = 1 Million ticks per second Current CPUs processing speeds are in GigaHertz 1 GHz = 1 Billion ticks per second 11 More on the System Unit Parts of the CPU Name 1. Word size Definition 1. The number of bits the processor can process at any one time 2. Control unit 2. The part of the CPU that deciphers instructions and carries them out 3. Arithmetic 3. The ALU performs mathematical and logical Logic Unit operations and controls the speed of them 4. Registers 4. High-speed storage areas that temporarily 5. Buses store data during processing 5. Electrical data roadways used to transmit bits within the CPU and between CPU and other motherboard components 12 How the CPU Works The machine cycle consists of four operations: fetching, decoding, executing, storing results The CPU 13 The System Unit: The Basics The CPU Continued Mainframe and minicomputer speed is measured in MIPS MIPS stands for millions of instructions per second Workstations perform at 100 MIPS or more Mainframes perform at 200 – 1,200 MIPS Supercomputer processing speed is measured in flops Flops stands for floating point operations per second IBM’s Blue Gene/L cranks out 70.72 teraflops (tera 14 = trillion) per second Hardware: The CPU & Storage 4.1 Microchips, Miniaturization, & Mobility 4.2 The System Unit: The Basics 4.3 More on the System Unit 4.4 Secondary Storage 4.5 Future Developments in Processing & Storage 15 Chapter 4 More on the System Unit How Memory Works Memory Chip 1. RAM Explanation 1. Random Access Memory chips are volatile and hold: a. Software instructions b. Data before & after the CPU processes it 2. ROM 3. CMOS 2. Read only memory a. Cannot be written on or erased without special equipment b. Are loaded at factory with fixed start-up instructions 3. Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor a. Powered by a battery b. Contains time, date, calendar, boot password 4. Flash 4. Nonvolatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed more than once a. Doesn’t require a battery b. Used in newer PCs for BIOS instructions 16 More on the System Unit Types of RAM RAM Types 1. DRAM 2. SDRAM 3. SRAM 4. DDRSDRAM Explanation 1. Dynamic RAM must be constantly refreshed by the CPU or it loses its contents 2. Synchronous Dynamic RAM is synchronized by the system clock and is much faster than DRAM 3. Static RAM is faster than DRAM and retains its contents without having to be refreshed by CPU 4. Double-data rate synchronous dynamic RAM 17 More on the System Unit Speeding up Processing The CPU works much faster than RAM So it could sit there waiting for information Cache temporarily stores instructions and data that the processor uses frequently to speed up processing Level 1 cache is part of the microprocessor Holds 8 to 256 kb Faster than Level 2 cache Level 2 cache is SRAM external cache Holds 64 kb to 2 Mb Level 3 cache is on the motherboard Comes on very high-end computers 18 More on the System Unit Speeding up Processing Method 1. Interleaving 2. 3. 4. 5. Description 1. CPU alternates communications between two or more memory banks Bursting 2. CPU grabs a block of data from memory instead of retrieving one piece at a time Pipelining 3. CPU doesn’t wait for one instruction to complete before fetching its next instruction Superscalar 4. The computer can execute more than one Architecture instruction per clock cycle Hyperthreading 5. A technique used in superscalar architecture in which the OS treats the microprocessor as though it is two 19 microprocessors More on the System Unit Ports Port Type 1. Serial Port Description 1. Used to transmit slow data over long distances a. Sends data sequentially, one bit at a time b. Used to connect keyboard, mouse, monitors, dial-up modems 2. Parallel Port 3. SCSI Port 2. For transmitting fast data over short distances a. Transmits 8 bytes simultaneously b. Connects printers, external disks, backups 3. Small Computer System Interface a. Connects up to 7 devices in a daisy chain b. Transmits data 32 bits at a time 4. USB Port 4. Universal Serial Bus can theoretically connect up to 127 20 peripheral devices in a daisy chain More on the System Unit USB Goals Be low-cost Be able to connect lots of devices Be hot swappable People hate rebooting because it takes time Hot swapping means a device can be connected/disconnected without rebooting Permit plug and play Devices are automatically configured when they are installed – no need to download new drivers 21 More on the System Unit USB Continued Standards USB 1.1 – the original standard USB 2.0 – the current standard for new PCs USB On The Go (OTG) – currently under development Connectors A – in USB Type 1.1 and 2.0 B – in USB Type 1.1 and 2.0 Mini B – in USB Type 2.0 Mini A – in USB OTG used for smaller peripherals like cellphones 22 More on the System Unit Specialized Expansion Ports Port Type 1. FireWire 2. MIDI 3. IrDA 4. Bluetooth 5. Ethernet Description 1. Intended for devices working with lots of data a. Used for camcorders, DVD players, TVs b. Handles up to 400 megabits per second 2. Musical Instrument Digital Interface a. Connects musical instruments b. Used in creating, recording, editing, performing music 3. Infrared Data Association: Infrared ports used to make a cableless connection 4. Uses short-range radio waves that transmit up to 30 ft at 721 Kbps a. Connects computers to printers, keyboards, headsets, even refrigerators b. Named after King Harald Bluetooth, son of Gorm, who united the Norway and Denmark. Ruled 910-940 A.D. 5. The standard for linking all devices in a23 Local Area Network More on the System Unit Expansion Cards 24 More on the System Unit Expansion Buses Bus 1. PCI bus 2. AGP Bus Description 1. Peripheral Component Interconnect a. For high-speed connections b. 32 or 64 bits wide c. Typically used for sound cards, modems, high-speed network cards 2. Accelerated Graphics Port a. Twice the speed of PCI bus b. For Video and 3-D graphics cards 25 Secondary Storage Storage Types 1. Floppy and Zip disks 5. 6. 7. 1. Removable disks. a. Floppies store 1.44 MB b. Zip disks store 100, 250, or 750 MB 2. Made from thin rigid metal covered with magnetizable substrate. Most disks have 2 or more platters Optical disks 3. Removable CDs and DVDs Magnetic tape 4. Thin plastic tape coated with magnetizable substance 5. Like a credit card, but contains a Smart Cards microprocessor and memory chips 6. Nonvolatile memory – no moving Flash memory parts Online secondary 7. Lets you store data on an online storage vendor’s server 26 2. Hard disks 3. 4. Descriptions Secondary Storage Hard Disks Thin, rigid metal, glass, or ceramic platters covered with a substance that allows data to be held in the form of magnetized spots The more platters there are, the higher the drive capacity Store data in tracks, sectors, and clusters Formatting creates a file allocation table that maps files to clusters or inodes Typical file systems are VFAT & NTFS for Windows, HFS and ext2 for Unix Drive heads ride on .000001” cushion of air, and can crash! 27 Important data should always be backed up! Secondary Storage Hard Disks Hard Disk Types: External Hard Disks – a freestanding disk drive Removable Hard Disk – inserted into a cartridge drive on the PC Hard Disk Controllers EIDE – Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics Supports up to 4 disks at 137 GB per disk Marketed as SATA, Fast ATA, Ultra ATA, ATA-2, ATA/100 SCSI – Faster than EIDE controllers 28 Secondary Storage Optical Disks CDs and DVDs are Optical disks Data is written and read using lasers, not a disk head CD-ROM is Compact Disk Read-Only Memory CD-R is used for recording only once CD-RW is an erasable optical disk that can both record and erase data over and over again DVD is a CD-style disk with extremely high capacity Stores 4.7 or more GB DVD-R is used for recording only once DVD-RW, DVD-RAM, DVD+RW are reusable DVDs Blu-Ray/HD-DVD vs. conventional red laser disk technology (25 GB) 29 Secondary Storage Flash Memory Nonvolatile memory with no moving parts But the electronics can wear out Available as Flash memory cards Insert these into a flash port of a camera, handheld PC, smartphone Flash memory sticks A form of flash memory that plugs into a memory stick port Flash memory drives A finger-sized module of flash memory Plugs into the USB port of most PCs and Macintoshes 30 Future Developments in Processing & Storage New Technology 1. M-RAM 2. OUM 3. Nanotechnology 4. Optical Computing 5. DNA Computing Description of Processing Technology 1. Magnetic RAM uses miniscule magnets rather than electrical charges 2. Ovonic Multiplied Memory stores bits by generating different levels of low and high resistance on a glossy material 3. Tiny machines work at a molecular level to make nanocircuits 4. Uses lasers and light, not electricity 5. Uses strands of synthetic DNA to store data 31 Future Developments in Processing & Storage Description of Storage Technology New Technology 1. Higher-density disks 1. Magnetic disk drives currently hold 100 GB of data 2. Molecular electronics 2. Polymer memory creates chips that store data on plastics a. Blank CDs are replacing floppy disks since they hold 650MB and cost < $1 each b. DVD disks hold up to 4.7 GB of data currently c. Perpendicular recording technology allows 25% - 100% more data to be stored on the same disk a. Nonvolatile memory b. Data is stored based on polymer’s electrical resistance 32