Download Number systems and codes

Switching circuits
• Composed of switching elements called
“gates” that implement logical blocks or
switching expressions
• Positive logic convention (active high):
– High voltage or H
– Low voltage or L
 Boolean 1
 Boolean 0
• Negative logic convention (active low):
– Low voltage or L
– High voltage or H
 Boolean 1
 Boolean 0
Switching circuits
• Logic variables  inputs/outputs  “signals”
• Signals “asserted” when the voltage level
assumes the corresponding “1” value
– Positive logic asserted by H
– Negative logic asserted by L
• Logic variables are written complemented
when they are active low
– Active high signals:
– Active low signals:
a, b, c
ā, ē, ū
Logic gates
• Logic gates  switching functions
• Gate symbols – two sets
Logic gates
• Gate symbols – two sets
Logic gates
• The NAND logic function and gate
Logic gates
• The NAND gate can be used to implement all
3 elementary operations of switching algebra:
AND, OR, NOT
Logic gates
• The set {AND, OR, NOT} implements any
switching function (by definition): it is
functionally complete
• Therefore, the “NAND” gate can be used to
implement any switching function
– It is functionally complete, or “primitive”
Logic gates
• The NOR logic function and gate
Logic gates
• The NOR function can be used to implement
all 3 elementary operations of switching
algebra: AND, OR, NOT
– It is functionally complete too
Logic gates
• The NOR logic function and gate
Logic gates and equivalence
• CMOS is “inverting” logic
– NOR and NAND are easier to implement than OR
and AND
– They are implemented as NOR or NAND followed
by an inverter
• More than one representation is possible for
the same switching function
• Different circuits of logic gates might perform
the same switching function
– Simpler networks are preferable
– Need to analyze for equivalence and transform
Logic gates and equivalence
• Equivalent logic networks
Logic gates and equivalence
• Proving the equivalence
Digital circuits
• Analysis
– Given a circuit, abstract the Boolean function it is
implementing and try to improve the implementation
or verify the function
• From gate diagrams
• From timing diagrams
• Synthesis
– Given a switching function, obtain the
corresponding switching network
Analysis
• Timing diagram
Analysis
• Truth table
Analysis
• Switching network
Combinational analysis
... derives truth table
Signal expressions
Multiply out:
F = ((X + Y)  Z) + (X  Y  Z)
= (X  Z) + (Y  Z) + (X  Y  Z)
New circuit, same function
Any number of manipulations can yield equivalent circuits
e.g.
F = ((X + Y’)Z) + X’YZ’
Note: [X’YZ’]Z = 0
(X + Y’)X’YZ’ = 0
(X’YZ’)(X’YZ’) = X’YZ’
So, F = [(X + Y’) + X’YZ’][Z + X’YZ’]
=(X + Y’ + X’)(X + Y’ + Y)(X + Y’ + Z’)(Z + X’)(Z + Y)(Z + Z’)
=(1)(1)(X + Y’ + Z’)(X’ + Z)(Y + Z)(1)
= (X + Y’ + Z’)(X’ + Z)(Y + Z)
Circuit:
Push bubbles to obtain cancellations
Push bubbles to obtain cancellations
Conclude:
given circuit ==> many equivalent equations
circuit does not determine equation
Also, equation does not determine circuit:
Two-level AND-OR
Three-level equivalent
Two-level NAND-NAND
Combinational analysis
given circuit, determine function
Combinational synthesis
given function, determine circuit
Prime number detector: F =  (1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13)
AND-OR design
N 3 N 3 ' N 0 N 0 '
Alarm:
Derive truth table or expand:
A = P + E  EX’  (W  D  G)’ = P + E  EX’  (W’ + D’ + G’)
= P + E  EX’  W’ + E  EX’  D’ + E  EX’  G’
A = P + E  EX’  W’ + E  EX’  D’ + E  EX’  G’
NANDs, NORs have fewer transistors than ANDs, ORs
AND-OR converts readily to NAND-NAND
Complication if some inputs go directly to second stage:
OR-AND to NOR-NOR
Bubble-pushing produces non-standard gate
Solution: inverters
Bubble-pushing produces non-standard gate
Solution: inverters
Bubble-pushing produces non-standard gate
Solution: inverters
Propagation delay
Propagation delay
Synthesis
• SOP functions -> AND – OR networks
• POS functions -> OR – AND networks
• Not always possible to design directly
– Fan-in and out restrictions
• Most designs are modular and multi-level
• Modern designs are too complex
• Design and testing by computers
– VLSI - CAD
Logic simulation
• Two states only for an ideal logic signal
– Two gates driving the same line in opposite
directions
– Input left not connected or “floating”
• Third state ‘X’ is added to the set of states
• Truth tables change
Synthesis approaches illustrated to this point:
Truth table derivation of minterms
Ad hoc construction of logic equation
Need systematic approach
that minimizes hardware
Karnaugh maps
Quine-McCluskey algorithm