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Unit 1: Introduction to APES Chapters 1, 6, 7 This set of notes is much longer than typical notes for this class will be because it contains so much background information. Do not be intimidated by the number of slides, just take the time to read and understand the material thoroughly in conjunction with the textbook in preparation for your quiz and test. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 Science and Sustainability: An Introduction to Environmental Science Environmental Science Environment: all the living and non-living things around us (Animals, plants, forests, farms, etc., Continents, oceans, clouds, ice caps, Structures, urban centers, living spaces, Social relationships and institutions…..its a long list!) Environmental science is the study of: How the natural world works and how the environment affects humans and vice versa We need to understand our interactions with the environment, to creatively solve environmental problems Global conditions are rapidly changing, we are also rapidly gaining knowledge and the opportunity to solve problems is still available An interdisciplinary field Natural sciences: examines the natural world (Environmental science programs) Social sciences: examines values and human behavior (Environmental studies programs) The fundamental insight of environmental science: Humans depend on a healthy, functioning planet, We are part of the natural world, but we can also change it, our interactions with its other parts matter a great deal We depend completely on the environment for survival Increased health, longer lives, wealth, mobility, leisure But natural systems have been degraded by pollution, soil erosion, species extinction, etc. Environmental changes threaten long-term health and survival © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. We rely on natural resources and ecosystem services Natural resources = substances and energy sources needed for survival, Natural resources are “goods” produced by nature Renewable natural resources: can be replenished Perpetually renewed: sunlight, wind, wave energy Renew themselves over short periods: timber, water, soil These can be destroyed Nonrenewable natural resources: unavailable after depletion Oil, coal, minerals Earth’s natural resources provide “services” to us Ecosystem services: arise from the normal functioning of natural services Purify air and water, cycle nutrients, regulate climate Pollinate plants, receive and recycle wastes We degrade ecosystem services by depleting resources, destroying habitat, generating pollution Increased human affluence has intensified degradation © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Human population growth amplifies impacts There are over 6.9 billion humans Agricultural revolution Crops, livestock Stable food supplies Industrial revolution Urbanized society powered by fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal) Sanitation and medicines Pesticides and fertilizers © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Resource consumption exerts pressures • • • • Exploitation and consumption of resources is also a problem Garret Hardin’s tragedy of the commons: unregulated exploitation of public resources leads to depletion and damage – Soil, air, water Resource users are motivated by self interest – They increase use until the resource is gone Solutions to the tragedy of the commons? – Private ownership? – Voluntary organization to enforce responsible use? – Governmental regulations? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Our “ecological footprint” and overshoot Affluence increases consumption Ecological footprint: the environmental impact of a person or population The area of biologically productive land + water To supply raw resources and dispose/recycle waste People in rich nations have much larger ecological footprints Overshoot: humans have surpassed the Earth’s capacity to support us If everyone consumed the amount of resources the U.S. does, we would need 4.5 Earths! We are using renewable resources 30% faster than they are being replenished © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Environmental science Civilizations have fallen after degrading the environment, Civilizations succeed or fail according to how they interact with the environment along with how they respond to problems Easter Island, Greek and Roman empires Once lush regions (i.e. Iraq) are now barren deserts Environmental science can help build a better world Environment impacts Humans Its applied goal: solving environmental problems Solutions are applications of science © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. What is an “environmental problem”? Whether an environmental condition is seen as a problem depends on the individual and situation Ex.: the pesticide DDT In malaria-infested Africa: welcome because it kills malaria-carrying mosquitoes In America: not welcome, due to health risks People also differ in their awareness of problems, depending on who they are, where they live, what they do © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Environmental science is not environmentalism • Environmental science – – • Pursues knowledge about the environment and our interactions with it Scientists try to remain objective and free from bias Environmentalism – – A social movement Tries to protect the natural world from human-caused changes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Science asks and answers questions It is an incremental approach to the truth Scientists do not simply accept conventional wisdom They judge ideas by the strength of their evidence Observational (descriptive) science: information is gathered about organisms, systems, processes, etc. Cannot be manipulated by experiments Phenomena are observed and measured Used in astronomy, paleontology, taxonomy, genomics Hypothesis-driven science: targeted research Experiments test hypotheses using the scientific method © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The scientific method: a traditional approach that’s part of a larger process It tests ideas Scientists in different fields approach problems differently Assumptions: The universe works according to unchanging natural laws Events arise from causes, and cause other events We use senses and reason to understand natural processes It guards against faulty research Includes peer review, publication, competition for funding © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Experiments test the validity of a hypothesis Variable: a condition that can change Independent variable: can be manipulated Dependent variable: depends on the independent variable Controlled experiment: the effects of all variables are controlled Except the independent variable whose effect is being tested Control: an unmanipulated point of comparison Quantitative data: uses numbers Qualitative data: does not use numbers © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Hypotheses are tested in different ways Manipulative experiments yield the strongest evidence • Reveals causal relationships • Lots of things can’t be manipulated Natural tests show real-world complexity • Results are not neat and clean • Answers aren’t black and white © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Theories and paradigm shifts • Theory: a well-tested and widely accepted explanation – • Paradigm shift – a dramatic upheaval in thought – • Consolidates widely-supported, related hypotheses It changes the dominant viewpoint Wicked problems: are complex, with no simple solution – I.e. environmental problems © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Sustainability and the future of our world Sustainability: we must live within our planet’s means So the Earth and its resources can sustain us and all life for the future Sustainability involves conserving resources Developing long-term solutions Keeping fully functioning ecosystems Natural capital: Earth’s total wealth of resources We are withdrawing it faster that it’s being replenished We must live off Earth’s natural interest (replenishable resources), not its natural capital © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Population & consumption Population growth amplifies all human impacts The growth rate has slowed, but we still add more than 200,000 people to the planet each day Resource consumption has risen faster than population The 20 wealthiest nations have 55 times the income of the 20 poorest nations Three times the gap that existed 40 years ago Not everyone benefits equally from rising affluence The ecological footprints of countries vary greatly The U.S. footprint is much greater than the world’s average © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. We face challenges in agriculture Technology expanded food production – – – – Nearly half of the land surface is used for agriculture Chemical fertilizers and pesticides poison and change natural systems Erosion, climate change and poor management destroy millions of acres each year Agriculture, urban sprawl, and other land uses have substantially affected most of the landscape of all nations © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. We face challenges in pollution • • Since the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have risen by 39%, to the highest level in 800,000 years Waste products and artificial chemicals – – – • Are used in farms, industries, and households Contaminate land, water and air Kill millions of people Humans are affecting the Earth’s climate – – – – Melting glaciers Rising sea levels Impacted wildlife, forests, health and crops Changed rainfall and increased storms © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. We face challenges in biodiversity • • Biodiversity: the cumulative number and diversity of living things Human actions have driven many species extinct – – – Biodiversity is declining dramatically We are setting in motion a mass extinction event Biodiversity loss may be our biggest problem; once a species is extinct, it is gone forever © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment • • The most comprehensive scientific assessment of the condition of the world’s ecological systems In 2005, 2000 of the world’s leading scientists from 100 nations reported : – – – – Humans have drastically altered ecosystems These changes have contributed to human well-being and economic development, but at a cost Environmental degradation could get much worse Degradation can be reversed, but it requires work © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Our energy choices will affect our future we need sustainable solutions The lives we live today are due to fossil fuels – Machines – Chemicals – Transportation – Products • Fossil fuels are a one-time bonanza – Supplies will certainly decline – We have used up ½ of the world’s oil supplies; how will we handle this imminent fossil fuel shortage? We must develop solutions that protect both our quality of life and the environment Renewable energy and efficiency Organic agriculture Legislation and technology to reduce pollution Protect species and their habitat Recycling, decreasing waste Decrease greenhouse gas emissions © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • Are things getting better or worse? • Many people think environmental conditions are better – • Some think things are much worse – • Cornucopians: human ingenuity will solve any problem no matter how we act and treat the planet Cassandras: predict doom and disaster, do not think we can continue on our current path without consequences How can you decide who is correct? – – – Are the impacts limited to humans, or are other organisms or systems involved? Are the proponents thinking in the long or short term? Are they considering all costs and benefits? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Sustainable development Development: purposeful changes to improve the quality of life The poor suffer the most from environmental degradation Sustainable development: the use of resources to satisfy current needs Without compromising future availability of resources Involves environmental protection, economic well-being and social equity Humans cannot exist without an intact, functioning ecosystem It values and prioritizes environmental protection Human-made capital cannot substitute for natural capital © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Will we develop in a sustainable way? The triple bottom line: sustainable solutions that meet Environmental protection Economic goals Social equity Humans must apply knowledge from the sciences to Limit environmental impacts Maintain functioning environmental systems We must make an ethical commitment to current and future generations © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 6 Environmental Ethics and Economics: Values and Choices Culture and worldview Our relationship with the environment depends on assessments of costs and benefits But culture and worldview also affect this relationship Ethics and economics give us tools to pursue the “triple bottom line” of sustainability Culture = knowledge, beliefs, values, and learned ways of life shared by a group of people Worldview = a person’s or group’s beliefs about the meaning, operation, and essence of the world, how a person sees his or her place in the world Many factors shape a person’s worldview Religious and spiritual beliefs shape our worldview and perception of the environment Community experiences shape attitudes Political ideology: government’s role in protecting the environment Economics Vested interest = the strong interest of an individual in the outcome of a decision Results in gain or loss for that individual © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Environmental ethics and Ethical Standards Ethics = Moral principles or values held by a person or society Relativists = ethics varies with social context Universalists = right and wrong remains the same across cultures and situations Ethics is a prescriptive pursuit: it tells us how we ought to behave Ethical standards = criteria that help differentiate right from wrong Categorical imperative: the golden rule How can this apply to environmental science? Principle of utility = something right produces the most practical benefits for the most people A uranium mine could benefit thousands of people © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. We value things in two ways How we value something affects how we treat it Instrumental (utilitarian) value: valuing something for its pragmatic benefits by using it Animals are valuable because we can eat them Intrinsic (inherent) value: valuing something for its own sake because it has a right to exist Animals are valuable because they live their own lives People have granted intrinsic value and ethical consideration to more and more people and things (Including animals, communities, and nature) Non-Western cultures often have broader ethical domains Things can have both instrumental and intrinsic value But different people emphasize different values © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Environmental ethics Environmental ethics = application of ethical standards to relationships between human and nonhuman entities Hard to resolve: it depends on the person’s ethical standards and domain of ethical concern Should we save resources for future generations? Should humans drive other species to extinction? When is it OK to destroy a forest to create jobs? Is it OK for some communities to be exposed to more pollution? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Three ethical perspectives Anthropocentrism = only humans have intrinsic value Biocentrism = some nonhuman life has intrinsic value Ecocentrism = whole ecological systems have value A holistic perspective that preserves connections © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. History of Environmental Ethics John Ruskin: people no longer appreciated nature • • Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau’s Walden • • The Industrial Revolution increased consumption and pollution • Transcendentalism = nature is a manifestation of the divine • People need to experience nature John Muir had an ecocentric viewpoint • Unspoiled nature should be protected for its own intrinsic value, this is preservation • He was a tireless advocate for wilderness © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. History of environmental ethics • Gifford Pinchot had an anthropocentric viewpoint • • Use natural resources wisely for the greatest good for the most people (the utilitarian standard) this is conservation Aldo Leopold believed the land ethic changes the role of people from conquerors of the land to citizens of it • • Healthy ecological systems depend on protecting all parts The land ethic can help guide decision making © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. History of environmental ethics • • Ecofeminism = the female worldview interprets the world through interrelationships and cooperation • Some scholars feel that male-dominated societies cause both social and environmental problems • Domination and competition degrade women and the environment Environmental justice = the fair and equitable treatment of all people regarding environmental issues – The poor and minorities have less information, power, and money – Significant inequities remain despite progress toward racial equality – – Economic gaps between rich and poor have widened Minorities and the poor still suffer substandard environmental conditions – Examples: Native American miners, Hurricane Katrina © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Environmental justice: an international issue Pollution can not be stopped at the boarders of countries: how would you stop air pollution at a boarder? Wealthy nations impose pollution on poorer nations Companies pay poor nations to take their hazardous waste It is dumped illegally It may be falsely labeled as harmless or beneficial Workers are uninformed or unprotected The Basel Convention prohibits international export of waste but illegal trade and dumping continue The United States has not ratified this treaty © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The environment vs. economics Friction occurs between ethical and economic impulses • • Is there a trade-off between economics and the environment? – People say protection costs too much money, interferes with progress, or causes job loses – But environmental protection is good for the economy Traditional economic thought ignores or underestimates contributions of the environment to the economy • – Human economies depend on the environment © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Economics Economics studies how people use resources to provide goods and services in the face of demand • Economy = a social system that converts resources into: Goods (manufactured materials that are bought) and Services (work done for others as a form of business) • • Types of Economies • Subsistence economy = people get their daily needs directly from nature or their own production, they do not purchase or trade products • Capitalist market economy = buyers and sellers interact to determine prices and production of goods and services • Centrally planned economy = the government determines how to allocate resources • Mixed economy = governments intervene to some extent © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Governments intervene in a market economy The United States has a mixed market based on a capitalist economy Even in mixed market economies, governments intervene to: – Eliminate unfair advantages held by single buyers or sellers – Provide social services (national defense, medical care, education) – Provide safety nets for elderly, disaster victims, etc. – Manage the commons – Mitigate pollution and other threats to health and quality of life © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The economy exists within the environment • Economies receive inputs (resources) – – • Process them Discharge outputs (waste) Traditional economics (only the yellow box in the diagram) – – – Ignores the environment Resources are “limitless” Wastes are absorbed at no cost © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Environmental systems support economies • • • Environmental goods = natural resources (sun’s energy, water, trees, rocks, fossil fuels) Ecosystem services = essential services support the life that makes economic activities possible * Soil formation * Pollination * Water purification * Nutrient cycling * Climate regulation * Waste treatment Economic activities affect the environment – Depleting natural resources, generating pollution © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Classical versus Neoclassical Economics Classical economics: when people pursue economic selfinterest in a competitive marketplace • • • Adam Smith said The market is guided by an “invisible hand” • Society benefits • This idea is a pillar of free-market thought today • It is also blamed for economic inequality between rich and poor • Critics feel that market capitalism promotes environmental degradation Neoclassical economics: takes into account psychology • What psychological factors underlie consumer choices? • Market prices reflect supply vs. demand • Buyers vs. sellers • The “right” quantities of a product are produced • “Optimal” levels of pollution, resource use © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Cost-benefit analysis • Cost-benefit analysis = costs of a proposed action are compared to benefits that result from the action – • Cost-benefit analysis is controversial: not all costs and benefits can be identified or defined – – • If benefits > costs: pursue the action It is easy to quantify wages paid to miners But hard to assess the cost of a scarred landscape Monetary benefits are overrepresented – – Analysis is biased in favor of economic development Biased against environmental protection © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Neoclassical economics assume resources are unlimited Capitalist market systems operate according to neoclassical economics Enormous wealth and jobs are generated Environmental problems are also created Assumptions of neoclassical economics: Resources are infinite or substitutable or a replacement resource will be found Costs and benefits are internal (see next slides for explanation) Long-term effects are discounted (see next slides for explanation) Growth is good (see next slides for explanation) Goods and services are treated as “free gifts of nature”, Infinitely abundant, resilient, and substitutable But Earth’s resources are limited Nonrenewable resources can be depleted Renewable resources (e.g., forests) can also be depleted © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Neoclassical systems assume costs and benefits are internal Only the buyer and seller experience costs and benefits Pricing ignores social, environmental, or economic costs of pollution and degradation Externalities = costs or benefits involving people other than the buyer or seller External costs = borne by someone not involved in a transaction External costs include water pollution, health problems, property damage, and harm to other organism Governments develop laws and regulations But how do you assign monetary value to illness? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Neoclassical systems assume long term effects are discounted A future event counts less than a present one Discounting = short-term costs and benefits are more important than long-term costs and benefits Present conditions are more important than future ones Cutting trees now brings in more money than cutting them in the future Policymakers ignore long-term consequences of actions Puts costs of degradation, resource depletion, pollution on to future generations © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Neoclassical systems assume growth is good (we live in a growth oriented economy) Economic growth = an increase in an economy’s production and consumption of goods Promoting economic growth creates opportunities for poor to become wealthier Affluenza = material goods do not always bring contentment Runaway growth can destroy our economic system Growth is used to measure progress All economic growth is seen as good and necessary Modern global economic growth is unprecedented Progress is measured by economic growth But economic activity and true wealth are not the same It is necessary to maintain social order Higher trade, production, amount and value of goods The United States has a “more and bigger” attitude Americans are in a frenzy of consumption © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Is the growth paradigm good for us? The dramatic rise in per-person consumption has severe environmental consequences Can growth go on forever? Economic growth comes from: Increased inputs (labor, natural resources) Economic development = improved efficiency of production (technology, ideas, equipment) Uncontrolled economic growth is unsustainable Technology can push back limits, but not forever Efficient resource extraction and production perpetuate the illusion that resources are unlimited Many economists believe technology can solve anything © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Cornucopians vs. Cassandras (Remember these from Chapter 1?) Cornucopians = economists, businesspeople, policymakers Improved technology allows continued economic growth Human innovation, technologies, and market forces increase access to resources and avoid depletion Cassandras = scientists and others Limits to Growth, Beyond the Limits, Limits to Growth: The Thirty-year Update Computer models predict economic collapse as resources become scarce © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Other types of economies Environmental economics = unsustainable economies have high population growth and inefficient resource use Modify neoclassical economics to increase efficienc and calls for reform Ecological economics = civilizations cannot overcome environmental limitations Endless economic growth is not possible, this calls for revolution Steady-state economies mirror natural ecological systems—they neither grow nor shrink As resources became harder to find, economic growth slows and stabilizes (John Stuart Mill, 1806–1873) Individuals and societies exist on steady flows of natural resources Herman Daly does not think a steady state will evolve on its own We must fundamentally change our economics This does not mean a lower quality of life Technology and behavior will enhance sustainability © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Measuring Economic Progress: GDP versus GPI Gross Domestic Product (GDP) = the total monetary value of goods and services a nation produces Does not account for nonmarket value Does not express only desirable economic activity Pollution, oil spills, disasters, etc. increase GDP Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) = differentiates between desirable and undesirable economic activity Positive contributions (e.g., volunteer work) not paid for with money are added to economic activity Negative impacts (crime, pollution) are subtracted © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. More green accounting indicators These indicators give a more accurate indication of a nation’s welfare Net Economic Welfare (NEW) = adjusts GDP by adding the value of leisure time and personal transactions Very controversial, hard to practice While deducting costs of environmental degradation Human Development Index = assesses a nation’s standard of living, life expectancy, and education Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW) = based on income, wealth distribution, resource depletion © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Valuing ecosystem goods and services Our society mistreats the very systems that sustain it The market ignores/undervalues ecosystem values Nonmarket values = values not included in the price of a good or service (e.g., ecological, cultural, spiritual) Contingent valuation = uses surveys to determine how much people are willing to pay to protect or restore a resource Measures expressed preferences But since people don’t really pay, they may overinflate values Revealed preferences = revealed by actual behavior Time, money, effort people spend Measures actual costs of restoration, cleanup, etc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The global value of all ecosystem services The global economic value of all ecosystem services equals $46 trillion More than the GDP of all nations combined Protecting land gives 100 times more value than converting it to some other use © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Markets can fail and can counter failure Market failure = occurs when markets ignore the environment’s positive impact and the negative effects of activities on the environment or people (external costs) Government intervention counters market failure Laws and regulations Green taxes = penalize harmful activities Economic incentives to promote fairness, conservation, and sustainability (e.g., pollution permits) Another intervention is Ecolabeling which tells consumers which brands use environmentally benign processes, this is a powerful incentive for businesses to change Dolphin-safe tuna, organic food Finally, Socially responsible investing in sustainable companies is another intervention $2.7 trillion in 2007 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Corporations are responding to concerns and offering “green” options Industries, businesses, and corporations make money by “greening” their operations Ben & Jerry’s (ice cream), Patagonia (clothing) Industries donate to environmental groups, preserve land, etc. Manufacturers use recycled materials, cut energy use, etc. Local sustainable businesses Large corporations are riding the “green wave” of consumer preference for sustainable products Greenwashing: consumers are misled into thinking companies are acting more sustainably than they are “Pure” bottled water may not be safer or better Any changes made by large companies will help McDonald’s, Starbucks, Intel, Ford, Dow, etc. Hewlett-Packard, Wal-Mart Corporate actions hinge on consumer behavior People must support sustainable economics © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 7 Environmental policy Policy = a formal set of general plans and principles to address problems and guide decision making Public policy = made by governments Environmental policy = pertains to human interactions with the environment Laws, regulations, orders, incentives, and practices intended to advance societal welfare Regulates resource use/reduces pollution to promote welfare and/or protect resources Science, ethics, and economics help formulate policy Science = provides information and analysis Ethics and economics = clarify how society can address problems Government interacts with citizens, organizations, and the private sector © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Policies prevent the tragedy of the commons and free riders Capitalist markets are driven by short-term profit not long-term social or environmental stability, there is little incentive to minimize impacts Market failure justifies government intervention to develop policies to prevent Tragedy of the Commons and Free Riders Tragedy of the commons = commonly held resources will become overused and degraded Best prevented by oversight and regulations Traditional societies may safeguard against exploitation Privatization works if property rights are clear Does not work with air, water, etc. Free riders = reducing pollution tempts people to cheat , free riders avoid sacrifices made by others and get a “free ride” Private voluntary efforts are less effective than efforts mandated by public policies that require all parties sacrifice equally © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Policies address external costs Environmental policies aim to promote fairness by dealing with external costs External costs = harmful impacts of market transactions are borne by people not involved in the transaction Polluter pays principal = polluters cover costs of impacts Environmental policy goals = to protect resources against the tragedy of the commons and to promote equity by eliminating free riders and addressing external costs © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Many factors hinder environmental policy Why are environmental laws challenged, ignored, and rejected by citizens and policymakers? Environmental policy involves government regulations Property owners and businesspeople think regulations are inconvenient and cause economic loss Problems develop gradually and over the long term Human behavior is geared toward short-term needs Businesses opt for short-term economic gain News media have short attention spans Politicians act out of short-term interest © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Framework of U.S. policy federal policy The U.S. has pioneered innovative policies and are role models and influence for other nations Legislative branch = Congress creates statutory law Executive branch = enacts or vetoes legislation Laws are implemented and executed by agencies Executive orders = specific legal instructions for government agencies Judicial branch = interprets laws Precedents = guides for later cases Lawsuits are filed for and against protection Administrative agencies = the “fourth branch” Established by the president or Congress as a source of policy through regulation, they monitor and enforce compliance Regulations = specific rules or requirements to achieve objectives of broadly written statutory laws © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. State and local governmental policies States, counties, and municipalities also generate environmental policies They can experiment with novel concepts California, New York, and Massachusetts have strong environmental laws, well-funded agencies, and citizens value protecting the environment State laws cannot violate principles of the U.S. Constitution (If laws conflict, federal laws take precedence). Rarely, federal laws may force states to change Federal policymakers can give financial incentives to encourage change (this works, if funds are adequate) “Cooperative federalism” = an agency works with state agencies to achieve national standards Despite pressure to weaken laws, federal control is vital to protect all citizens One national effort is more efficient than 50 efforts Transboundary disputes are minimized © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Constitutional amendments Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution Prohibits denying “equal protection of its laws” The constitutional basis for environmental justice Fifth Amendment = takings clause Bans the literal taking of private property Also bans regulatory taking, which deprives a property owner of economic uses of the property Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council In 1992 the Supreme Court ruled that a state law intending to prevent serious public harm violated the takings clause Lucas, a land developer, was allowed to build homes on beachfront property Although a state agency had prohibited construction on the property There is a sensitive balance between private rights and the public good © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Early U.S. environmental policy From 1780s to the late 1800s, promoted settlement and extraction of resources Increased prosperity for citizens and railroad companies and relieved crowding in Eastern cities, but displaced millions of Native Americans People believed land was infinite and inexhaustible General Land Ordinances of 1785 and 1787 The federal government managed unsettled lands, surveying/readying them for sale Homestead Act (1862) = anyone could buy or settle on 160 acres of public land General Mining Act (1878) = people could mine on public land for $5/acre with no government oversight Timber Culture Act (1873) = 160 acres to anyone promising to plant trees on 25% of that land © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The second wave of U.S. policy Public perception and government policy shifted because of problems caused by westward expansion People began to understand that the West’s resources were exhaustible and required legal protection Yellowstone National Park, the world’s first national park, opened in 1872 Also, national wildlife refuges, parks, and forests Land management policies addressed soil conservation The 1964 Wilderness Act preserves pristine land © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The third wave of U.S. environmental policy (Modern Policy) Mid-to late-20th century people were better off economically but lived with dirtier air, dirtier water, and more waste and toxic chemicals The public demanded more environmental protection Increased awareness of environmental problems shifted public priorities and policies Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) described the ecological and health effects of pesticides and chemicals Most Americans support environmental protection Millions of people celebrate Earth Day each April © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The National Environmental Policy Act (1970) and the EPA The Council on Environmental Quality created the NEPA and began the modern era of environmental policy Requires an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for any federal action that might significantly impact the environment and forces the government and businesses to evaluate the environmental impacts of a project Its cost-benefit approach usually does not halt projects It provides incentives to decrease damage and citizens are granted input President Nixon’s executive order created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Conducts and evaluates research, monitors environmental quality , sets and enforces standards for pollution levels, assists states in meeting standards and goals, educates the public The EPA is a leading agency in developing solutions to pollution © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Significant environmental laws The public demanded a cleaner environment and supported tougher environment al legislation © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Modern policy and a possible 4th wave? Several factors converged to allow major advances in environmental policy in the 1960s and 1970s Wide evidence of environmental problems and people could visualize policies to deal with problems, the political climate was ripe, with a supportive public and leaders who were willing to act Congress strengthened and elaborated laws in the 1980s Amendments to the Clean Water and Clean Air Acts By 1990, many felt that regulations were too strict, attempts were made to weaken federal laws by Reagan and George W. Bush It is thought that typically Republicans do not support increasing environmental policy, while Democrats do, but be careful to understand that this is a generalization and is not always true Current government (since 2008), has started increasing environmental movements, this fourth wave of policy focuses on sustainability, safeguarding ecosystems while © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. raising living standards 3 approaches to policy: #1 Using the court system Before legislation, lawsuits addressed U.S. policy issues Tort law = deals with one entity harming another Nuisance law = individuals suffering from pollution would seek redress through lawsuits Courts make polluters stop through injunctions or fines But justices were reluctant to hinder industry In Boomer v. Atlantic Cement Company, the company had to pay people for damages but could still operate The market decides between right and wrong This is not a viable option to prevent pollution © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 3 approaches to policy: #2 Government Control Command-and-control approach: a regulating agency sets rules or limits Threatening It punishment for violators brings cleaner air, water, safer workplaces, etc. Government actions may be well-intentioned But not well-informed Interest groups—people seeking private gain—unduly influence politicians and work against public interests Citizens may view policies as restrictions on freedom Those policies will not remain in force © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 3 approaches to policy: #3: Market control Other approaches use innovation and efficiency to benefit the public Aim to internalize external costs Taxes discourage undesirable activities Green taxes = tax environmentally harmful activities Businesses reimburse the public for damage they cause The more pollution, the higher the tax payment Give companies financial incentives to reduce pollution with freedom to decide how to do so But costs are passed on to consumers © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Subsidies promote certain activities Subsidy = a government giveaway of cash or resources to encourage a particular activity Tax break = helps an entity by relieving its tax burden They have been used to support unsustainable activities Nations give $1.45 trillion/year in harmful subsidies Environmentally Harmful Subsidies From 2002 to 2008, U.S. fossil fuel companies received $72 billion of taxpayer money, while renewable energy received only $29 billion The General Mining Act of 1872 Mining companies get $500 million–$1 billion in minerals from U.S. public lands each year, but they don’t pay a penny in royalties to taxpayers The government has given away $250 billion in mineral resources Mining activities have polluted 40% of Western watersheds The U.S. Forest Service spends $35 million of taxpayer money per year building roads for logging companies Companies sell the trees for profit © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Harnessing market dynamics Governments use financial incentives in direct and selective ways Subsidies and green taxes Financial incentives and market dynamics can also help in obtaining policy goals Ecolabeling = sellers advertise that they use sustainable practices Businesses win consumer confidence and outcompete less sustainably produced brands © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Permit trading saves money Permit trading = a government-created market in permits for an environmentally harmful activies; businesses buy, sell, trade these permits Cap-and-trade emissions trading system = the government sets pollution levels (“caps”) and issues permits Polluters can buy, sell, and trade these permits, so pollution is reduced overall, but does increase around polluting plants Companies have an economic incentive to reduce emissions A cap-and-trade system in the U.S. mandates lower sulfur dioxide emissions Emissions have decreased by 43% Cuts were obtained cheaper and more efficiently than command-andcontrol regulation With no effects on supply or economic growth Markets in carbon emissions are sprouting up © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Market incentives and public-private partnerships Market Incentives Municipalities charge residents for waste disposal, according to the amount of waste generated Some cities give rebates for buying water-efficient appliances Power utilities give discounts to those buying efficient lightbulbs and appliances Well-planned market incentives can reduce environmental impact while minimizing costs to industry, thus easing concerns about government intrusion Public-private partnership = a for-profit entity does the work A private entity acts as overseer Public policy goals will be achieved in a timely, cost-effective manner Private entities try to maximize efficiency It is challenging to design workable partnerships while serving both private and public interests © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Seven steps to making environmental policy Creating environmental policy has several steps Step 1: Identify a problem This requires curiosity, observation, record keeping, and an awareness of our relationship with the environment. Step 2: Pinpoint causes of the problem • Involves scientific research • Risk assessment = judging risks a problem poses to health or the environment Step 3: Envision a solution Risk management = developing strategies to minimize risk Involves social or political action © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Step 4: Get organized Organizations are more effective than individuals But a motivated, informed individual can also succeed Step 5: Cultivate access and influence • Lobbying = spending time and money to influence a politician - Environmental advocates are not the most influential lobbyists Step 6: Shepherd the solution into law Prepare a bill, or draft law, containing solutions Find members of the House and Senate to introduce the bill and shepherd it through committees The bill may become law or die in various ways Step 7: Implement, assess, and interpret policy Following a law’s enactment Administrative agencies implement regulations Policymakers and others evaluate the policy’s successes or failures The judicial branch interprets the law Who influences the policy process? Political Action Committees (PACs) raise money for political campaigns Corporations and industries can not make direct campaign contribution, so they establish PACs to help candidates win Science Effective decisions are informed by scientific research A nation’s strength depends on its commitment to science Sometimes policymakers ignore science They let political ideology determine policy Government scientists have had their work censored, suppressed, or edited and their jobs threatened Unqualified people were put into power Most scientists greeted President Obama with relief © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. International Environmental Policy Environmental problems are not restricted by national borders Customary law = practices or customs held by most cultures Conventional law = from conventions or treaties Montreal Protocol = nations agreed to reduce ozone-depleting chemicals Kyoto Protocol = reduces fossil fuel emissions causing climate change Nations can also make progress through multilateral agreements, hard work, and diplomacy © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Organizations shape international policy International organizations influence nations through funding, peer pressure, and media attention United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) The World Bank = one of the world’s largest funding sources for economic development (Dams, irrigation, infrastructure) Helps nations understand and solve environmental problems Funds unsustainable, environmentally damaging projects The European Union (EU) seeks to promote Europe’s unity, economic and social progress Can sign binding treaties and enact regulations Can also issue advisory directives Sees environmental regulations as barriers to trade The World Trade Organization (WTO) Represents multinational corporations and promotes free trade Can impose penalties on nations that don’t comply with its directives Interprets environmental laws as unfair barriers to trade Brazil and Venezuela filed a complaint against U.S. regulations requiring cleaner-burning fuel, and the WTO agreed with Brazil and Venezuela, despite threats to human health Critics charge the WTO aggravates environmental problems © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. NGOs Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) = entities that influence international policy ENGOs (environmental NGOs) = groups advocating for environmental protection Some do not get politically involved Others try to shape policy through research, education, lobbying, or protest © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. International institutions weld influence Globalization is making our world more interconnected Societies and ecosystems are being changed at unprecedented rates Trade and technology allow increased consumption Consumptive nations exert incredible impacts Multinational corporations operate outside the reach of national laws They don’t have the incentive to conserve resources or act sustainably Organizations and institutions that shape policy are vital © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
