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The Language of Composition
Chapter 1: Using the Available Means
AP English
Language and Composition
What is Rhetoric?

Aristotle 332 BC
According to
Aristotle, rhetoric
is the faculty of
observing in any
given case the
available means
of persuasion.
What is Rhetoric?

Rhetoric is “situational”
 The key to understanding rhetoric
is identifying the speaker’s context
and purpose.
Rhetorical Triangle
Speaker
Aristotelian
Triangle
Audience
Subject
Rhetorical Analysis
Speaker
1. What is the
speaker’s goal?
Intent? How
credible is the
speaker?
Aristotelian
Triangle
Audience
Subject
Rhetorical Analysis
Speaker
2. What is the
subject? How
well does the
speaker know
his/her material?
Aristotelian
Triangle
Audience
Subject
Rhetorical Analysis
Speaker
Aristotelian
Triangle
Audience
3. How does the
audience feel
about the subject?
Is it controversial?
Is the audience
receptive or
resistant?
Subject
Rhetorical Analysis

Aristotle taught
that a speaker's
ability to persuade
is based on how
well the speaker
appeals to his or
her audience in
three different
areas: ethos,
logos, and pathos.
Appeal to Ethos
An appeal to the
speaker’s
character,
reputation,
and/or credibility
 How believable
is the speaker?

Speaker
Ethos
Audience
Subject
Appeal to Ethos
The speaker must:
1. prove that he/she
is credible to
speak about the
given subject
2. emphasize
values/ideas
shared with the
audience – make
a connection
Appeal to Ethos

Speaker’s ethos
can be established
through his/her
expertise,
knowledge,
experience,
training, and/or
sincerity.
Appeal to Logos
Appeals to
logos are an
appeals to
logic or reason
 Appeals to
logos offer
clear and
rational ideas

Speaker
Ethos
Logos
Audience
Subject
Pathos
Appeal to Logos
Logos considers the
subject from all
sides, including the
opposition’s.
 These ideas may be
conveyed via:

 Shared Assumptions

Counterarguments
Appeal to Pathos
Appeals to
pathos appeal
to the
emotions.
 Such appeals
emotionally
engage the
audience with
the subject.

Speaker
Ethos
Logos
Audience
Subject
Pathos
Appeal to Pathos

Appeals to Pathos
are achieved
through the
speaker’s point of
view, use of
connotative
language, and
figurative
language.
Appeal to Pathos

Arguments that
only appeal to
pathos are rarely
effective. Such
arguments are
merely
propagandistic
and polemical.
Appeal to Pathos

Speaker
Ethos
Logos
Audience
Subject
Pathos
Effective speakers
and writers appeal
to ethos, logos, and
pathos in order to
make use of all
“available means”
to persuade their
audiences of their
positions.
Visual and Literary Rhetoric

Rhetoric is
employed
whenever a
“speaker” wants
to convey an
opinion,
perspective, or
argument.
Visual and Literary Rhetoric
Cartoons, photographs, songs, film,
and literature all employ rhetoric.
 So long as a message is being
conveyed, rhetoric is being
employed.

Visual and Literary Rhetoric

As such the
elements of the
Rhetorical/
Aristotelian
Triangle are
employed:
Speaker—Subject
–Audience.
Audience
Speaker
Subject
Visual and Literary Rhetoric

Likewise, appeals
to Ethos, Logos,
and Pathos are
also needed to
attract, maintain,
and “convince”
an audience of
your point of
view.
Visual and Literary Rhetoric

All elements incorporated within the
“text” must be employed to convey this
point of view.
 If they are not, they are impeding the
rhetorical effectiveness of the “text.”
Rhetorical Arrangement
Rhetorical arrangement refers to how
the “argument” is organized.
 The arrangement of an argument is
dependent upon its purpose.

The Classical Model

Introduction
introduces the
subject. The
goal is to get the
reader’s
attention and
develop ethos.
The Classical Model



Narration provides factual
background information about the
subject.
This represents the beginning of the
body/development paragraphs.
The Narration presents the problem
embodied within the subject.
The Classical Model


Confirmation
provides the
proof to support
the speaker’s
position.
This evidence
must be specific,
detailed, and
concrete.
The Classical Model


Refutation provides the
counterargument, which addresses
possible objections to the speaker’s
position.
The refutation provides a smooth
transition from the Confirmation to
the Conclusion.
The Classical Model


Conclusion appeals to pathos and
reiterates the ethos established in the
Introduction.
The Conclusion answers the “so
what” question; it explains why the
speaker’s position is relevant.
Rhetorical Arrangements
Specialized Patterns:
 Narration
 Description
 Process Analysis
 Exemplification
 ComparisonContrast
 ClarificationDivision
 Definition
 Cause and Effect