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MEMORY
Today’s Agenda
Webquest (10min)
Intro to memory
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Memory
Take out your spiral and label the next
page Memory
Answer the following question in 3-5
sentences.
Recall as much detail as you can about
your 6th birthday. What did you do? Who
was there? Etc. The more details the
better!
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What is Memory?
Human memory is an
information processing
system that works
constructively to encode,
store, and retrieve
information
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What is Memory?
Memory –
Any system – human, animal, or machine
– that encodes, stores, and retrieves
information
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Why is choosing the right penny so difficult?
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It’s difficult because. . .
1. We haven’t encoded that info.
2. We haven’t stored that info.
3. Therefore, we cannot retrieve it easily.
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What is pseudoforgetting?
Pseudoforgetting (false forgetting) is a
failure to encode the information.
You didn’t forget; you just never cared
enough to pay attention!
(pseudo = false)
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3 basic tasks of memory
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
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The way I see it!!
Encoding
Putting info in the
brain
Storage
Retrieval
Elaboration –
trying to understand it
Making it meaningful to
you
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The way I see it!!
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Keeping the info
in the brain
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The way I see it!!
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Getting stuff
out of your
brain
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Now, use computer
terminology to
describe the
processes of memory!
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Review
Getting information into the brain is called
_____; getting information out of
memory is called ______.
a. storage; retrieval
b. Encoding; storage
c. Encoding; retrieval
d. Storage; encoding
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Let’s talk about
encoding.
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Now let’s try
something.
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Can you remember this?
GBX IYU CSE GWE LIY
TRN
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It’s tough. You might remember the
structure (all capital letters).
That’s structural encoding.
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Try this
Pain
Crane Sane Layne
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Phonemic Encoding
That was easier because they all rhymed.
Remembering sounds is easier than
remembering structure.
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Acoustic encoding –
Conversion of information to sound
patterns in working memory
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Acoustic encoding
What are the parts of the human
body?
Think of a song!!!!!!!!!
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Can you remember all 50 states?
Make up a song.
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Acoustic encoding
I remember Rick’s name because it sounds
like he acts on a daily basis.
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Semantic encoding
“Semantic” means meaning. We
remember stuff that has meaning better
than their structure and sounds.
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Try this.
Apples are grown in Washington.
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Levels of Encoding
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Review
The word “big” is flashed on the screen. A
mental picture of the word big represents a
______ code; the definition “large in size”
represents a ______ code; “sounds like pig”
represents a _______ code.
a. structural; phonemic; semantic
b. Phonemic; semantic; structural
c. Structural; semantic; phonemic
d. Phonemic; structural; semantic
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What is serial
positioning effect?
Imagine a grocery list: milk, eggs,
butter, bread, celery, chocolate, Big
Red, Beans, chips.
We most likely will remember the first
few items and the last few.
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Encoding: Serial Position Effect
Percent
age of
words
recalled
90
80
Serial Position
Effect-tendency
to recall best
the last items in
a list
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4 5 6 7 8
Position of
word in list
9
10 11 12
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How can we use this
as students?
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Encoding is effective when
You pay attention. “Selective attention” If you don’t pay
attention, your sensory memory will hear blah, blah.
You have to pay attention to get info into your
working memory
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Effective Encoding
We encode what we are interested in. This
is called self-referent encoding.
Can you remember my phone number?
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Self referent encoding
We remember information that is
personally relevant.
I’ll give you money if you
remember something.
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Dual Encoding
Dual encoding (learning) involves
combining different levels of processing.
Combine Semantic with phonemic with
structural processing when you learn
and study.
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A common way of dual
encoding is
Mnemonics
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Mnemonics (encoding)
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units
like horizontal organization--1776149218121941
often occurs automatically
use of acronyms
PEMDAS - ????
ROYGBIV - ?????
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Method of loci?
Aristotle talked about this. You have a
grocery list: hot dogs, cat food, tomatoes,
bananas, Dr. Pepper.
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Method of loci?
Now imagine you are arriving home in the
driveway you see hot dogs all over the
driveway, INSIDE the garage your cat is eating
its food, you see tomatoes spattered on the
door, you hang your coat but see banannas
hanging in the closet, you go to the sink and
see Dr. Pepper face down in the sink.
What’s cool about the method of loci is you
remember the items in a specific order.
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Eggs, strawberries, ravioli, chocolate, beef.
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Encoding Specificity Principle
What are context dependent effects:
information learned in a particular context is
better recalled if recall takes place in the
same context
ex: mood congruence
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Godden & Baddeley (1975)
Memory experiment with deep-sea divers
Deep-sea divers learned words either on land or underwater
They then recalled the words either on land or underwater
If you study underwater, then test underwater!
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Mood Congruence
Easier to remember
happy memories in a
happy state and sad
memories in a sad
state.
mood primes certain
memory contents
Getting mad
primes you to
remember other
times you were
mad.
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Encoding summary
Encoding is most effective when we can
see it, hear it, touch it, and
UNDERSTAND it. Also, it’s most
effective when we combine those
elements. Encoding is best when we
care.
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What is spacing effect?
Memory is better for repeated information if repetitions
occur spaced over time than if they occur massed,
one after another. No cramming!
Why? 1.Spacing distributed practice (instead of
massed practice) reduces retroactive and proactive
interference.
2.REM sleep helps memory. So study Tuesday, sleep,
study Wednesday, sleep. You’ll do better.
3.Distributed practice may cause you to encode it in
different ways and in different moods.
Melton&&Bacon
Schulman,
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20071970
If a subject is asked to remember this list of
numbers in 10 seconds: 48, 31, 45, 76, 97,
84, 26, 12, 67, which numbers will she most
likely remember?
a. 84, 45
b. 48, 67
c. 12, 31
d. 97, 76
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Now let’s talk about storage
Each of the three memory
stages encodes and stores
memories in a different way,
but they work together to
transform sensory experience
into a lasting record that has a
pattern of meaning
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What are the Three Stages of Memory?
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
(STM)
Long-term
Memory
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The First Stage: Sensory Memory
On the next slide, you will see a
series of letters for one second
Try to remember as many letters
as you can
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DJB
XHG
C LY
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The First Stage: Sensory Memory
How many can you recall?
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DJB
XHG
C LY
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The First Stage: Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory has a large capacity, very
short duration, allows quick/online
commerce with environment.
It registers sensations coming into our
"system" from the environment, allowing
us to pick up on all the rich stimuli "out
there." There are many "types" of
sensory memories, corresponding to our
different senses, as in eyes, hears, touch,
taste, etc.
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Sensory memory
Sensory memory lasts no more than 2
seconds. The precise length of
different types of sensory memories
differs (e.g., visual sensory memory is
shorter than auditory).
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Sensory Memory
Sensory memory traces fade fairly
rapidly. We simply lose the
information UNLESS we do something
further with it.
Did you remember when I clapped
earlier?
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The First Stage: Sensory Memory
Psychologists believe that, in this stage,
memory images take the form of nerve
impulses
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The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
STM
Long-term
Memory
Preserves recently
perceived events or
experiences for less
than a minute without
rehearsal.
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The Second Stage: Working Memory
Alan Baddeley’s model
of Working memory
(STM) consists of
• A central executive
• A phonological loop
• The sketchpad
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What is Atkinson – Shiffrin
model of memory storage?
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Short Term Memory (working)
STM can hold unrehearsed information up
to 20 seconds.
STM can hold 7 items +/- 2, according to
some theories.
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Encoding and Storage
in Working Memory (STM)
Chunking –
Organizing pieces of information into a
smaller number of meaningful units
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Okay, earlier we talked
about chunking as a
means of encoding
(understanding).
Now we will mention it as a means
of Short-term storage.
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Chunking
Can you remember this number?
19039848557
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Chunking
How about this one?
1-903-984-8557
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Maintenance rehearsal –
Process in which information is repeated
or reviewed to keep it from fading while in
working memory
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Maintenance Rehearsal
JLo says, “My phone
Number is 469-2595968”
You then repeat it to
yourself until you can
write it down
somewhere.
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What parts of brain are involved in
memory?
The Prefrontal
Cortex--Site of
Working
Memory (STM)
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The hippocampus converts memory into long-term memory. The
amygdala processes scary or stressful memories
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Flashbulb memories?
Memories we never
forget because of
the emotion
involved.
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The capacity of STM (working memory) is
a. About 50, 000 words
b. Unlimited
c. About 25 stimuli
d. About 7 “chunks” of information
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The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Stores material
organized
according to
meaning, also
called LTM
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Long-term memory
Declarative memory Procedural memory
Semantic memory
Includes memory
for:
language, facts
general knowledge
Episodic memory
Memory of life’s
Episodes like first
kiss
Includes memory
for:
motor skills,
operant and
classical
conditioning
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Long-term memory
Declarative memory Procedural memory
Semantic memory
Episodic memory
Includes memory
for:
language, facts
general knowledge
Includes memory
for:
events, personal
experiences
Includes memory
for:
motor skills,
operant and
classical
conditioning
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Your memory of how to brush your teeth is
contained in your ______ memory.
a. Declarative
b. Procedural
c. Structural
d. episodic
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Your knowledge that birds fly, that the sun
rises in the east, and that 2+2=4 is
contained in your ______ memory.
a. Structural
b. Procedural
c. Implicit
d. semantic
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Why do we forget?
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Decay theory?
We simply forget over time.
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Motivated forgetting
AKA “repression” We want to forget awful
things.
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3 types of amnesia?
Infantile amnesia – stuff we don’t remember as
babies
Anterograde amnesia –
Inability to form memories for new
information
Retrograde amnesia –
Inability to remember information
previously stored in memory
Note: procedural memory seems
unaffected!
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Anterograde Amnesia –caused by damage
to hippocampus
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Retrograde amnesia
Any soap opera where someone can’t
remember who they are, where they live,
etc.
Quarterbacks who can’t remember games
when they got concussions.
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HM: Amnesic
Severe epilepsy, treated with surgery to bilaterally
remove medial temporal lobes, including
hippocampus
Operation 9/1953, 27 years old
HIPPOCAMPUS
MEDIAL TEMPORAL LOBES
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LTM
Consolidation –
The process by which short-term
memories are changed to long-term
memories
Our ultimate goal as students!!!!! We want
to remember this stuff on May 12!
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How do we consolidate?
Make it meaningful. Put notes in your own
words. Relate stuff to your own experience.
See it, smell it, taste it, touch it, sing it, make a
joke about it (preferably a dirty one).
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If decay theory is correct:
a. Information can never be permanently lost
from long-term memory
b. Forgetting is simply a case of retrieval failure
c. The principal cause of forgetting should be
the passage of time
d. All of the above
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Many amnesiacs demonstrate _____
memory, even though their ______
memory is extremely impaired.
a. declarative; procedural
b. Conscious; unconscious
c. Implicit; explicit
d. Semantic; episodic
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Retrieval Cues
Retrieval cues –
Stimuli that are used to bring a memory
to consciousness or into behavior
Example: hints that a teacher gives you
during a test without giving you the
answer.
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Retrieval Cues
What is Priming? –
Technique for retrieving memories by
providing cues that stimulate a memory
without awareness of the connection
between the cue and the retrieved
memory. Giving hints to remember.
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Name the Seven Dwarves
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Remembering off the
top of your head is
recall.
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Now pick pick out the seven
dwarves.
Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy
Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy
Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful
Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop
Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach
Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy
Stubby Poopy (this is recognition)
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Seven Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful
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What is Recall and Recognition?
Recall –
Technique for retrieving explicit memories in
which one must reproduce previously
presented information (fill in blank) remember
without priming
Recognition –
Technique for retrieving explicit memories in
which one must identify present stimuli as
having been previously presented (multiple
choice) remember with priming
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
TOT (tip of the tongue) phenomenon? –
The inability to recall a word, while
knowing that it is in memory
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PORN – Proactive – Old getting in the way of the new
Retroactive – New getting in the way of the old.
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Proactive or retroactive?
I’ve used my locker combination for years.
One day I had to learn a new one for just
one day. Now I can’t remember my old
one.
I keep calling my new girlfriend by my old
girlfriend’s name!
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Why Does Memory
Sometimes Fail Us?
Most of our memory
problems arise from
memory’s “seven sins” –
which are really by-products
of otherwise adaptive
features of human memory
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Percent retained
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
5
10
15
Days
20
25
30
Recall decreases rapidly, then reaches a plateau,
after which little more is forgotten
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Factors Affecting the Accuracy of
Eyewitnesses:
Recollections are less influenced by
leading questions if possibility of memory
bias is forewarned
Passage of time leads to increase in
misremembering information (JFK
assassination)
Age of the witness matters
Confidence in memory is not a sign of
accuracy
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Who is Elizabeth Loftus?
Elizabeth Loftus studied how false
memories are planted into people’s
minds. Questioned reliability of
eyewitness testimony.
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Let’s review.
1. The three stages of Atkinson-Shiffrin
process of memory are:
a) iconic, echoic, encoding
b) sensory, short term, long term
c) shallow, medium, and deep
processing
d) semantic, episodic, procedural
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2. Which of the following examples best
illustrates episodic memory?
a) telling someone how to tie a shoe
b) answering correctly that the Battle
of Hastings was in 1066
c) knowing that the word for black in
French is noir
d) remembering that a clown was at
your fifth birthday party
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When Sue memorized her shopping list, she got
to the store and forgot many items from the
middle of the list. This is due to the
a. Inappropriate encoding
b. Retrograde amnesia
c. Proactive interference
d. The serial-position effect
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3. Doug wrote a grocery list of 10 items, but
leaves it at home. The list included in order:
peas, corn, squash, onions, apples, pears,
bananas, flour, milk, and eggs. If the law of
primacy holds, which of the following is Doug
most likely to remember when he gets to the
store?
a) peas, pears, eggs
b) banana, flour, peas
c) apples, pears, bananas
d) peas, corn, squash
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4. Mnemonic devices
a) can only be used to remember
concrete words
b) have existed since ancient times
c) are generally ineffective and are
unnecessary in modern times
d) are the main element for improving
everyday memory
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5. According to the levels of processing theory of
memory
a) we remember items that are repeated
again and again
b) maintenance rehearsal will encode items
into our long-term memory
c) deep processing involves elaborative
rehearsal, ensuring encoding into long-term
memory
d) input, output, and storage are the three
levels
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6. Which of the following brain structures
plays a key role in transferring
information from short-term memory to
long-term memory?
a) hypothalamus
b) thalamus
c) hippocampus
d) frontal lobe
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7. Dan was drunk, so his girlfriend convinced
him to get out of his car, and she drove him
home in her car. He could not remember
where his car was parked when he got up the
next morning, but after drinking some liquor,
Dan remembered where he left his car. This
phenomenon best illustrates:
a) the misinformation effect
b) mood-congruent memory
c) the framing effect
d) state-dependent memory
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8. Which of the following terms is
synonymous with “motivated forgetting”?
a) regression
b) repression
c) sublimation
d) rationalization
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9. A retrieval cue is
a) a brain structure stimulus used to
locate a particular memory
b) the same thing as an elaboration
encoding variable
c) a stimulus associated with a
memory that is used to locate that
memory
d) always based on the mood you
were in when a memory was first
encoded
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10. Focusing awareness on a narrow
range of stimuli or events involves
a) encoding
b) attention
c) elaboration
d) clustering
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11. If you were attempting to recall a
memory, the memory process you would
be using is
a) encoding
b) storage
c) retrieval
d) acquisition
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12. A memory code that emphasizes the
meaning of the verbal input is called
a) a structural code
b) a phonemic code
c) a semantic code
d) an episodic code
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13. Which level of processing should result
in the longest lasting memory codes?
a) structural encoding
b) mnemonic encoding
c) semantic encoding
d) phonemic encoding
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14. Pseudoforgetting is viewed as a
function of
a) interference effects
b) lack of attention
c) hippocampal damage
d) insufficient retrieval cues
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15. Overlearning material will
a) not improve retention
b) improve retention
c) improve retention for nonsense
syllables, but not much else
d) result in “burnout”
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Chapter 7 Answer Key
1. B
2. D
3. D
4. B
5. C
6. C
7. D
8. B
11. C
12. C
13. C
14. B
15. B
9. C
10. B
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