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Memory
Mental Representations
• For a stimulus to be remembered it has to be
represented in the mind
• A mental representation is a psychological
version (mental model) of a stimulus or
category of stimuli
• A neural code such as “dogs” or “cars”
Mental Representations
• Sensory Representations
– Stores information in a sensory mode such as
the sound of a dog barking
• Verbal Representations
– Store information in words
– The concept of “freedom” is a verbal
representation
James’ Model of Memory
• William James differentiated between primary and
secondary memory
• Primary
– Immediate memory for information momentarily held
in consciousness
• Secondary
– Stored information that can be recalled upon demand
Standard Model of Memory
• Sensory Registry (SR)
• Short term memory (STM)
• Long term memory (LTM)
Sensory Registry
• Detects that something is there
• Holds information for a fraction of a second
• Creates a mental representation that it
passes onto short term memory
• Similar to a stroke on the keyboard of a
computer
Short Term Memory
• Holds mental representations for up to 20-30 seconds
• Limited capacity of 5-7 bits of information
– (Telephone numbers)
• Decides whether a mental representation is worth saving
• Rehearsal- A deliberate effort to retain material in STM
• Similar to a computer screen
Long Term Memory
• If one decides to save mental representations in
STM they commit the data to LTM
• Once in LTM the data is stored indefinitely
• Serial position effect suggest we tend to remember
data at the beginning of a sequence better than we
remember data at the end of a sequence
• Similar to a hard disc on a computer
Evolution of the Memory Model
• Serial Processing Model
– Stages that occur in a particular memory sequence
– Recent research questions whether this is accurate in
that some memories are not consciously sent to LTM
– Some evidence that LTM influences STM
•
Modules
– View memory as a set of modules that can operate
simultaneously (parallel) rather than in a serial
sequence
Evolution of the Memory Model
• Some LTM memories can be acted upon
without conscious effort or STM
• The underlying metaphor has shifted from
mind as a computer to mind as brain
Working Memory
• Working memory is the temporary storage and
processing of information that can be used to:
– Solve problems
– Respond to environmental demands
– Achieve goals
• Working memory is active in that the information
remains only so long as one is consciously using it
Working Memory Model
• Visual Memory Store
– Temporary images
• Verbal Memory Store
– Based on sounds
• Central Executive
– Controls and manipulates visual and verbal
stores
Working & Long Term memory
• Working Memory
– Temporary storage
– Limited capacity
– Work space to
accomplish goals
• Long Term Memory
– Permanent storage
– Unlimited capacity
– Does not process, just
stores
Chunking
• Memory technique that uses knowledge stored in
LTM to accomplish goals
• Key interaction between working and long term
memory
• Utilizes mnemonics such as:
– SEC= Securities and Exchange Commission
– USAID= United States Agency for International
Development
Forms of Long Term Memory
• Declarative
– Facts and events such as September 11th
• Procedural
– How to knowledge such as riding a bicycle
• Semantic
– General (genetic) knowledge (cars in general)
• Episodic
– Memory of a specific nature ( my first car)
Explicit & Implicit Memory
• Explicit
– Conscious recollection
– Recall
• Essay examination
– Recognition
• Multiple choice examination
• Implicit
– Behavior not requiring conscious recollection
– Tying a shoe
Everyday Memory
• Memory we use in our daily activities
– Functional in that it is important to us
– Focuses on remembering meaningful
information
• Perspective Memory
– Memory for things we need to do in the future
– Our mental “to do” list
Encoding Stimuli
• Encoding
– Processes used to store data in our brain
• Encoding Specificity Principle
– The match between the manner in which
information is encoded and later recalled
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•
•
•
Goal to memorize
Goal to understand
Context
Emotional state at time of stimuli
Levels of Processing
• The degree to which information is elaborated,
reflected upon and processed
• Shallow
– Little effort expended
– Often used for multiple choice exams (details)
• Deep
– A great deal of energy is devoted to an event or stimuli
– Necessary for essay exams (underlying concepts)
Representational Modes
• The more ways a memory can be encoded the
greater the accessibility for retrieval
• Retrieval Cues
– Stimuli or thoughts that can be used to facilitate
recollection
• A special dining experience at a finer dining
establishment will include:
– The atmosphere of the location
– The visual presentation of the food
– The odors of the food
Two Strategies to Remember
• Mnemonic Devices
– Systematic shortcuts
– “RAW” to remember
Reading
Writing
Arithmetic
• Method of Loci
– Associate new information with something
familiar
SQ3R Method
• Survey
– Pager through a chapter
• Question
– When beginning a section turn the heading into a question
• Read
– As you read attempt to answer the questions you posed about the
section
• Recite
– Mentally (or orally) answer your questions
• Review
– When you finish the chapter, recall your questions and relate what
you have learned to your experiences and interests
Spacing
• Rehearsing information over a period of
time is more effective than waiting until the
last minute
• Cramming the night before an exam
– better than not studying at all
– not nearly as effective as studying over the
course of several weeks
Biology of Memory
• Network of Association
– Each piece of information is stored in a node
– Activating one node triggers activation in
closely related nodes
• Spreading Activation Theory
– Suggests nodal networks are hierarchically
organized from narrow networks through
broader connections
Schemas
• Patterns of thought that render the environment relatively
predictable. Schemas fill in the missing pieces in a
situation and serve to bias our perceptions
– Police officers issue speeding tickets
• An active process of reconstruction of the past
– I got a ticket once and lost my license for 30 days
• Schemas greatly influence our perception of a new event
– That officer might issue me a ticket
Seven Sins of Memory
• Transience
– Memories fade away
• Absent-Mindedness
– Failure to remember due to distraction
• Misattribution
– Misremember source of a memory
• Suggestibility
– Thinking we remember something that someone
actually implanted in our minds
Seven Sins of Memory
• Bias
– Distorting the way we recall events in a way we would
rather remember
• Persistence
– Retaining (rehearsing) memories we would rather
forget
• Forgetting
– Inability to recall
Forgetting
• Steep drop in our ability to recall
• Availability & Access
– Availability- The data is “in there”
– Access- Our ability to retrieve the data
• Flashbulb Memories
– Vivid memories of exciting or high
consequence events
Decay Theory
• Suggests forgetting is a result of fading
memory tracts if not used
• We tend to rehearse important memories
and ignore others
Interference Theory
• Proactive Interference
– Previously stored memories interfere with new
information
• One refers to their current partner by their
previously partner’s name
• Retroactive Interference
– New information interferes with stored
memories
• Your new cell # interferes with remembering your
previous cell #
Motivated Forgetting
• We actively desire to forget (repress)
something or some event
– A bad argument with your parents
– A break up with a significant other