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Unit 7A
Memory
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Memory Games
http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
What is Memory?
Human memory is learning
what has persisted over time,
information that has been
stored and can be retrieved
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What is Memory?
Memory –
Any system – human, animal, or machine
– that encodes, stores, and retrieves
information
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You are what you remember
Without memory you would have no past or
future, only a present
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3 basic tasks of memory
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
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The way I see it!!
Encoding
Putting info in the
brain
Storage
Retrieval
Elaboration –
trying to understand it
Making it meaningful to
you
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The way I see it!!
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Keeping the info
in the brain
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The way I see it!!
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Getting stuff
out of your
brain
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Models of memory By Atkinson and
Shiffrin – the older model
Sensory memory – a fleeting needs to be
remembered info
Short-term Memory- where we encode the
information through rehearsal
Long-term memory- used to be retrieved
later
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What is Atkinson – Shiffrin
model of memory storage?
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Figure 7A.2 A modified three-stage processing model of memory Atkinson and Shiffrin’s classic
three-step model helps us to think about how memories are processed, but today’s researchers
recognize other ways long-term memories form. For example, some information slips into long-term
memory via a “back door,” without our consciously attending to it. And so much active processing
occurs in the short-term memory stage that many now prefer the term working memory.
© 2011 by Worth Publishers
Working memory: updated model
Process new information along with
information from long term
memory.Working memory associates
new and old information and solves
problems.
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Let’s talk about
encoding.
Putting info into the brain
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How we encode
Automatic processing- parallel processing doing many
things at once. Ex: you automatically process info
about space, time, frequency: Where you ate last
night? Takes no effort
Effortful processing- encoded info with a great deal of
effort – usually long-lasting memories- uses rehearsalremembering vocab words: Unit’s vocabulary
Elaborative rehearsal- Relate the new information to
something already in your Long Term Memory
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Now let’s try
something.
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Can you remember this?
GBX IYU CSE GWE LIY
TRN
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Ebbinghaus- Those who learn quickly forget quickly. The
amount recalled depends on time spent learning
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What is spacing effect?
Memory is better for repeated information if repetitions
occur spaced over time than if they occur massed,
one after another. No cramming!
Why? 1.Spacing distributed practice (instead of
massed practice) reduces retroactive and proactive
interference. (Proactive- old memories, Retroactivenew memories)
2.REM sleep helps memory. So study Tuesday, sleep,
study Wednesday, sleep. You’ll do better.
3.Distributed practice may cause you to encode it in
different ways and in different moods.
Melton&&Bacon
Schulman,
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20071970
What is serial
positioning effect?
Imagine a grocery list: milk, eggs,
butter, bread, celery, chocolate, Big
Red, Beans, chips.
We most likely will remember the first
few items and the last few.
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Encoding: Serial Position Effect
Percent
age of
words
recalled
90
80
Serial Position
Effect-tendency
to recall best
the last items in
a list
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4 5 6 7 8
Position of
word in list
9
10 11 12
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What we encode
Levels of processing- when processing
verbal information we associate it with
what we already know. Depends on
context, our experiences. What encoding
gets the best results? Visual= images,
acoustic= sounds and Semantic=
meaning of words
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Acoustic encoding
Click it or ticket, Drive Sober or get Pulled
over, If the glove doesn’t fit you must
equit
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Acoustic encoding
What are the parts of the human
body?
Think of a song!!!!!!!!!
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Can you remember all 50 states?
Make up a song.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A9RlJ
q3IOHg
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Semantic encoding
“Semantic” means meaning. We
remember stuff that has meaning better
than their structure and sounds. Find
meaning in what you are trying to
remember
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Visual encoding
How do the words appear? ALL
CAPITALS
Using mental images to remember. Where
is something located on the page?
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Mnemonics (encoding)
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units
like horizontal organization--1776149218121941
often occurs automatically
use of acronyms
HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
PEMDAS - ?????
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Chunking
Can you remember this number?
19039848557
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Levels of Encoding
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How can we use this
as students?
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Encoding is effective when
You pay attention. “Selective attention” If you don’t pay
attention, your sensory memory will hear blah, blah.
You have to pay attention to get info into your
working memory
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Encoding summary
Encoding is most effective when we can
see it, hear it, touch it, and
UNDERSTAND it. Also, it’s most
effective when we combine those
elements. Encoding is best when we
care.
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If a subject is asked to remember this list of
numbers in 10 seconds: 48, 31, 45, 76, 97,
84, 26, 12, 67, which numbers will she most
likely remember?
a. 84, 45
b. 48, 67
c. 12, 31
d. 97, 76
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Now let’s talk about storage
Each of the three memory
stages encodes and stores
memories in a different way,
but they work together to
transform sensory experience
into a lasting record that has a
pattern of meaning
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What are the Three Stages of Memory?
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
(STM)
Long-term
Memory
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The First Stage: Sensory Memory
On the next slide, you will see a
series of letters for one second
Try to remember as many letters
as you can
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DJB
XHG
C LY
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The First Stage: Sensory Memory
How many can you recall?
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DJB
XHG
C LY
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The First Stage: Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory has a large capacity, very
short duration, allows quick/online
commerce with environment.
It registers sensations coming into our
"system" from the environment, allowing
us to pick up on all the rich stimuli "out
there." There are many "types" of
sensory memories, corresponding to our
different senses, as in eyes, hears, touch,
taste, etc.
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Sensory memory
Sensory memory lasts no more than 2
seconds. The precise length of
different types of sensory memories
differs (e.g., visual sensory memory is
shorter than auditory).
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What is sensory memory?
Iconic memory- fleeting photographic
memory. For a few 10ths of a second our
eyes take an exact picture of a scene
Echoic memory- impeccable, yet fleeting,
auditory memory – Auditory echoes last
for about 3 – 4 seconds
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Sensory Memory
Sensory memory traces fade fairly
rapidly. We simply lose the
information UNLESS we do something
further with it. Pay attention to it
Selective attention
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The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
STM
Long-term
Memory
Preserves recently
perceived events or
experiences for less
than a minute without
rehearsal.
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Short Term Memory (working)
STM can hold unrehearsed information up
to 20 seconds.
STM can hold 7 items +/- 2, according to
some theories.
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Encoding and Storage
in Working Memory (STM)
Chunking –
Organizing pieces of information into a
smaller number of meaningful units
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Okay, earlier we talked
about chunking as a
means of encoding
(understanding).
Now we will mention it as a means
of Short-term storage.
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Chunking
Can you remember this number?
19039848557
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Chunking
How about this one?
1-903-984-8557
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Maintenance rehearsal –
Process in which information is repeated
or reviewed to keep it from fading while in
working memory
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Maintenance Rehearsal
JLo says, “My phone
Number is 469-2595968”
You then repeat it to
yourself until you can
write it down
somewhere.
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Elaborative rehearsal –
Process in which information is actively reviewed and related to
information already in LTM
Example: Suppose you had to know the following definition of the term
"norm" for your sociology class: norms are standards of desirable
behavior that people are supposed to follow in their interactions with
others.
If you were to use rote rehearsal, you would repeat this definition over
and over many times. If, however, you were to use elaborative rehearsal,
you would expand on the above definition by adding additional
information and associating it with information already in your memory.
Below, the meaning of the term is analyzed in greater detail and also
includes examples that connect the information to knowledge you may
already have in your memory system.
Norms often differ depending on the situation. Example: It's okay to tell
my problems to my parents or friends but not to strangers.
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Goal
The goal is to get information into our long
term memories (LTM). LTM is limitless
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The Biological Components of Memory
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What parts of brain are involved in
memory?
The Prefrontal
Cortex--Site of
Working
Memory (STM)
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The hippocampus is part of a network of regions in the
brain important for memory. Research suggests that the
mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus, amygdala , and
hippocampus may work in concert to regulate which
information is consolidated in memory
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Synaptic Changes
Neurons communicate
with each other via the
neurotransmitter
messengers.
Experience changes
neural networks.
Sea Slug study
Kandal & Schwatz
discovered when a sea
slug learns Classical
Conditioning) it releases
more serotonin at certain
synapses- These synapses
become more efficient
transmitting signals
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Study Continued
• Increased synaptic efficiency makes efficient neural circuits
• These memory circuits increase their sensitivity for hours or weeks
• Sending neuron needs less prompting to release its
neurotransmitter and receiving neuron site may increase
• This longer strengthening of potential neural firing is called Long
Term Potentiation – LTP. Thi is the neural basis for learning and
memory
• LTP is the physical basis for memory
• Drugs that block LTP interfere with learning
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Drugs that boost glutamate. This
neurotransmitter enhances LTP. Need to
do so without nasty side effects. Best
known memory enhancer : SLEEP
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Stress Hormones and memory
When stressed or excited our emotiontriggered stress hormones create more
glucose energy for the brain
Amygdala also elevates activity and
available proteins in the brain . Result:
Arousal can sear certain memories into
the brain
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Flashbulb memories?
Stress and memory
Memories we never
forget because of
the emotion
involved. The brain
commands:
“Capture This”
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Flashbulb Memories Continued
Although flashbulb memories are vividMisinformation can seep into them
Prolonged stress can corrode neural
connections and shrink the brain area
(hippocampus) Also when sudden
hormones are flowing memories can be
blocked – Mind Goes Blank
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The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Stores material
organized
according to
meaning, also
called LTM
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Long-term memory
Declarative memory Procedural memory
Semantic memory
Episodic memory
Includes memory
for:
language, facts
general knowledge
Includes memory
for:
events, personal
experiences
Includes memory
for:
motor skills,
operant and
classical
conditioning
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3 types of amnesia?
Infantile amnesia – stuff we don’t remember as
babies
Anterograde amnesia –
Inability to form memories for new
information
Retrograde amnesia –
Inability to remember information
previously stored in memory
Note: procedural memory seems
unaffected!
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Retrograde amnesia
Any soap opera where someone can’t
remember who they are, where they live,
etc.
Quarterbacks who can’t remember games
when they got concussions.
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Anterograde Amnesia
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50 First Dates
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ehtk3Nfn
X4A
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HM: Amnesic
Severe epilepsy, treated with surgery to bilaterally
remove medial temporal lobes, including
hippocampus
Operation 9/1953, 27 years old
HIPPOCAMPUS
MEDIAL TEMPORAL LOBES
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
IKP6tBhM2T4&safety_mode=true
&persist_safety_mode=1&safe=act
ive
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LTM
Consolidation –
The process by which short-term
memories are changed to long-term
memories
Our ultimate goal as students!!!!! We want
to remember this stuff on May 5!
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How Do We
Retrieve Memories?
Whether memories are
implicit or explicit, successful
retrieval depends on how
they were encoded and how
they are cued
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How we get information out of memory
Retrieval cues –
Stimuli that are used to bring a memory
to consciousness or into behavior
Example: hints that a teacher gives you
during a test without giving you the
answer. Mnemonic devices Every Good
Boy Deserves Fudge
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Retrieval Cues
What is Priming? –
Technique for retrieving memories by
providing cues that stimulate a memory
without awareness of the connection
between the cue and the retrieved
memory. Giving hints to remember.
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Priming
If you are presented with the following
words:
assassin, octopus, avocado, mystery,
sheriff, climate
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Priming
An hour later, you would easily be able to
identify which of the following words you
had previously seen:
twilight, assassin, dinosaur, mystery
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Priming
However, an hour later, you would also
have a much easier time filling in the
blanks of some of these words than
others:
ch_ _ _ _ nk
o _ t _ _ _ us
_ og _ y _ _ _
_ l _ m _ te
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Priming
While you did not actively try to remember
“octopus” and “climate” from the first list,
they were primed in the reading, which
made them easier to identify in this task
chipmunk
octopus
bogeyman
climate
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Name the Seven Dwarves
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Remembering off the
top of your head is
recall.
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Now pick pick out the seven
dwarves.
Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy
Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy
Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful
Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop
Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach
Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy
Stubby Poopy (this is recognition)
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Seven Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful
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What is Recall and Recognition?
Recall –
Technique for retrieving explicit memories in
which one must reproduce previously
presented information (fill in blank) remember
without priming
Recognition –
Technique for retrieving explicit memories in
which one must identify present stimuli as
having been previously presented (multiple
choice) remember with priming
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déjà vu- already seen
Being in a context similar to one we have
been in before can trigger déjà vu
A current situation may be filled with cues
that unconsciously retrieve an earlier,
similar experience
Possible dual processing is the cause
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Other Factors Affecting Retrieval
Mood congruent memory –
A memory process that selectively
retrieves memories that match one’s
mood
A good mood reminds you of good times.
A fight with your boyfriend reminds you of
something else he did to piss you off.
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Godden & Baddeley (1975)
Memory experiment with deep-sea divers
Deep-sea divers learned words either on land or underwater
They then recalled the words either on land or underwater
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Why do we forget?
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Three sins of Forgetting
Absent-mindedness- inattention to detail leads to
encoding failure – where are my glasses?
Transience- storage decays over time- don’t use it lose it!
Who was in your first grade?
Blocking- stored information is inaccessible- remembering
someone in a movie or Proactive and Retroactive
interference
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Sins of Distortion
Misattribution- confused on the source of
the information time or place or personNCIS episode
Suggestibility- an aftereffect of
misinformation- a leading question- Did ?
Touch you? Becomes a false memory
Bias- memories jaded by beliefs- My child
could not have done what you said
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Sin of Intrusion
Persistence- Haunted by unwanted
memories Cannot seem to forget
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Percent retained
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
5
10
15
Days
20
25
30
Recall decreases rapidly, then reaches a plateau,
after which little more is forgotten
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Motivated forgetting
AKA “repression” We want to forget awful
things.
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Suggestibility
Process of memory distortion as a result of
deliberate or inadvertent suggestion
Misinformation effect –
The distortion of memory by suggestion or
misinformation: Did Mr. Smith touch your
private parts?
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Factors Affecting the Accuracy of
Eyewitnesses:
Recollections are less influenced by
leading questions if possibility of memory
bias is forewarned
Passage of time leads to increase in
misremembering information (JFK
assassination)
Age of the witness matters
Confidence in memory is not a sign of
accuracy
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What is repressed memory controversy?
Elizabeth Loftus studied how false
memories are planted into people’s
minds. The misinformation effect is the
planting of misleading information into
one’s memory
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Misinformation effect
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=il0u2s_
WGXA
Video in psych folder: repressed memories
memory distortion
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Let’s review.
1. The three stages of Atkinson-Shiffrin
process of memory are:
a) iconic, echoic, encoding
b) sensory, short term, long term
c) shallow, medium, and deep
processing
d) semantic, episodic, procedural
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2. Which of the following examples best
illustrates episodic memory?
a) telling someone how to tie a shoe
b) answering correctly that the Battle
of Hastings was in 1066
c) knowing that the word for black in
French is noir
d) remembering that a clown was at
your fifth birthday party
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When Sue memorized her shopping list, she got
to the store and forgot many items from the
middle of the list. This is due to the
a. Inappropriate encoding
b. Retrograde amnesia
c. Proactive interference
d. The serial-position effect
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3. Doug wrote a grocery list of 10 items, but
leaves it at home. The list included in order:
peas, corn, squash, onions, apples, pears,
bananas, flour, milk, and eggs. If the law of
primacy holds, which of the following is Doug
most likely to remember when he gets to the
store?
a) peas, pears, eggs
b) banana, flour, peas
c) apples, pears, bananas
d) peas, corn, squash
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5. According to the levels of processing theory of
memory
a) we remember items that are repeated
again and again
b) maintenance rehearsal will encode items
into our long-term memory
c) deep processing involves elaborative
rehearsal, ensuring encoding into long-term
memory
d) input, output, and storage are the three
levels
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6. Which of the following brain structures
plays a key role in transferring
information from short-term memory to
long-term memory?
a) hypothalamus
b) thalamus
c) hippocampus
d) frontal lobe
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7. Dan was drunk, so his girlfriend convinced
him to get out of his car, and she drove him
home in her car. He could not remember
where his car was parked when he got up the
next morning, but after drinking some liquor,
Dan remembered where he left his car. This
phenomenon best illustrates:
a) the misinformation effect
b) mood-congruent memory
c) the framing effect
d) state-dependent memory
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8. Which of the following terms is
synonymous with “motivated forgetting”?
a) regression
b) repression
c) sublimation
d) rationalization
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9. A retrieval cue is
a) a brain structure stimulus used to
locate a particular memory
b) the same thing as an elaboration
encoding variable
c) a stimulus associated with a
memory that is used to locate that
memory
d) always based on the mood you
were in when a memory was first
encoded
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10. Focusing awareness on a narrow
range of stimuli or events involves
a) encoding
b) attention
c) elaboration
d) clustering
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11. If you were attempting to recall a
memory, the memory process you would
be using is
a) encoding
b) storage
c) retrieval
d) acquisition
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12. A memory code that emphasizes the
meaning of the verbal input is called
a) a structural code
b) a phonemic code
c) a semantic code
d) an episodic code
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13. Which level of processing should result
in the longest lasting memory codes?
a) structural encoding
b) mnemonic encoding
c) semantic encoding
d) phonemic encoding
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14. Pseudoforgetting is viewed as a
function of
a) interference effects
b) lack of attention
c) hippocampal damage
d) insufficient retrieval cues
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15. Overlearning material will
a) not improve retention
b) improve retention
c) improve retention for nonsense
syllables, but not much else
d) result in “burnout”
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Chapter 7 Answer Key
1. B
2. D
3. D
4. B
5. C
6. C
7. D
8. B
11. C
12. C
13. C
14. B
15. B
9. C
10. B
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Essay Question Possibilities!!
One of the following essay questions will
appear on your test, be familiar with all of
them!!
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Essay Question # 1
Using the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of
memory, describe the capacity, the
durability, and the typical form of
information storage in each of the three
human memory systems, and identify the
processes that transfer information from
one system to another.
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Essay Question # 2
Compare the Atkinson and Shiffrin model
of short-term memory with Baddely’s
more complex model of short-term
memory.
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Essay Question # 3
Compare and evaluate decay theory and
interference theory as explanations of
forgetting.
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Essay Question # 4
Distinguish between implicit and explicit
memory, declarative and procedural
memory, and semantic and episodic
memory, and explain how these are
interrelated.
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Essay Question # 5
Outline some strategies that can be used
to improve everyday memory.
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Good Luck!
Make sure to double check all of your
answers and study them for the
upcoming exam. Remember, AT LEAST
FIVE of the questions from this quiz will
make some sort of appearance on the
chapter test along with one of the essay
questions.
Take advantage of this study guide and
good luck on your test!
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