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Your first grade
teacher?
Your first pet?
Your mom’s
birthday?
Your 7th grade
science teacher?
First major
disappointment?
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The last 5 presidents?
Who won last Super
Bowl?
Last year’s school
musical?
The first time you
drove by yourself?
Your earliest memory?
Figure 7.2
Three key processes in memory. Memory depends on three sequential processes: encoding, storage, and
retrieval. Some theorists have drawn an analogy between these processes and elements of information
processing by computers as depicted here. The analogies for encoding and retrieval work pretty well, but the
storage analogy is somewhat misleading. When information is stored on a hard drive, it remains unchanged
indefinitely and you can retrieve an exact copy. As you will learn in this chapter, human memory storage is a
much more dynamic process. Our memories change over time and are rough reconstructions rather than exact
copies of past events.
SHALLOW PROCESSING (ALSO
KNOWN AS MAINTENANCE
REHEARSAL)
DEEP PROCESSING (ALSO
KNOWN AS ELABORATIVE
REHEARSAL)
Involves simple repetition of the
material
Coding by forming associations
between new information and
information already stored
NOT an effective way to encode
material
Ex: Try to draw what the home
screen of your smartphone looks like
(which apps are where) or if you are
old school… try to draw what the
keypad of your phone looks like
Makes information more meaningful
therefore it is an effective way to
encode
Ex: If you relate information
presented in class to your own life, it
will be easier to remember
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Defined as: memory
devices for improving
the encoding and
retrieval of
information
Single-use mnemonics
are designed to
improve recall of a
particular bit of info
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How do you remember
the colors of the
rainbow?
How do you remember
which months have 31
days?
How do you remember
which way to set the
clock for daylight
savings time?
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Locations of
objects in a
room are used
to memorize a
list
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Lets practice with a
shopping list 
Fig 7.1
VISUAL MEMORY
ECHOIC MEMORY
How long does it last?
Maintains an image of what we have
seen for a few tenths of a second after
the stimulus has appeared.
How long does it last?
Maintains the sounds we have heard
for about 3 or 4 seconds after the
stimulus
Research done by George Sperling
(on the next couple of slides)
Has anyone ever tried to catch you
not listening? What happens when
they say “What did I just say?” Why
can we remember that when we
REALLY aren’t paying attention
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Invented by George
Sperling
A letter array is
shown briefly
After array is gone,
tone signals which
row to report
Subjects recalled more
letters when signaled
to recall only one row
compared to trying to
recall all the letters
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Limited duration (some studies say it is limited to
about 18 seconds)
About 7 items can be maintained at a time
Maintenance rehearsal
retains information for
longer periods of time
 practice of intentionally
rehearsing information
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Limited capacity
Interference is one of the main reasons
why information disappears from STM
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 when new information enters STM &
overwrites information that is already there
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Chunking is combining separate items of information into a
larger unit and then remembering the chunks of
information
 phone numbers are remembered in chunks
 622-875-9211
Fig 7.1
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Declarative memory
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Involves memories for factors or events
Includes semantic & episodic memory
 episodic memory involves knowledge of
specific events, personal experiences, or
activities (e.g., activities in college)
 semantic memory involves knowledge of
facts, concepts, words, definitions &
language rules (e.g., what you learn in
class)
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Procedural or Nondeclarative memory
Memories for motor skills,
some cognitive skills
(learning to read), and
emotional behaviors learned
through classical conditioning
 We cannot recall or retrieve
procedural memories
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Fig 7.7
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Flashbulb Memory
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a clear memory of an emotionally
significant moment or event
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Where were you when you first heard:
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Princess Diana had been killed?
That planes had flown into the World trade
center in New York?
The effect of leading questions on eyewitness recall. Subjects who were asked leading questions
in which cars were described as hitting or smashing each other were prone to recall the same
accident differently one week later, demonstrating the reconstructive nature of memory. (Based
on “Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction: An Example of Interaction Between Language
and Memory,” by E. F. Loftus and J.C. Palmer, 1974, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal
Behavior, 13, 585–589. Academic Press, Inc. Adapted by permission of the author.)
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Learning some items may disrupt
retrieval of other information
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Proactive(forward acting) Interference
 disruptive effect of prior learning on recall
of new information
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Retroactive (backwards acting)
Interference
 disruptive effect of new learning on recall
of old information
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Measures the amount of previously learned
information that subjects can recall across time
• Ebbinghaus
– One of the 1st
psychologists to
study memory &
forgetting
– He tested his
own memory of
nonsense
syllables
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Forgetting refers to the
inability to recall previously
learned information
Ebbinghaus documented the
rate of forgetting of
information
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Initial rate of forgetting is high
and then trails off...
© 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Amnesia is forgetting produced by brain injury
or by trauma
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Retrograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of
information prior to a trauma
Anterograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of
information after a trauma
Retrograde amnesia
Anterograde amnesia
Point of Trauma
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Cortex
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Amygdala
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Thin layer of brain cells that cover the surface of the forebrain
Almond-shaped structure lying below the surface of the cortex
in the tip of the temporal lobe
Plays a critical role in adding a wide range of emotions to our
memories
Hippocampus
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Curved, finger-like structure that lies beneath the cortex in
the temporal lobe
Transfers declarative information (words, facts &
events) from STM into LTM
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Subjects were shown lists
of words and asked to use
one of three strategies:
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Visual: Is the word printed in
capital letters?
Acoustic: Does the word
rhyme with _____?
Semantic: Does the word fit
the sentence _________?
The more thought involved
(elaborative rehearsal), the
better was their memory.
 Sleepy
 Bashful
 Sneezy
 Happy
 Dopey
 Grumpy
 Doc
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An Encoding problem
A storage problem
An interference problem
An insufficient-cueing problem
A repression problem