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Chapter 4 The Lithosphere and the Structure, Configuration
of the Earth’s Surface
Section 1 Composition of the lithosphere
Section 2 Structure of the lithosphere
Section 3 Movement of the lithosphere
Section 4 Structure and the outline of the solid earth’s
surface
Section 5 Tectonic landform
Section 6 The lithosphere and the human beings
Chapter 4
The composition of the lithosphere
The chemical element composition: The most part of elements in
the elemental periodic table are included in the earth's crust. The 8
major elements, O、Si、Al、Fe、Ca、Na、K and Mg, occupy above 98%, but
the other elements altogether occupy only 1% to 2%.
The mineral composition: The major mineral of the rock is named the
rock forming mineral. The normal rock forming minerals are felspar,
quartz, mica, picrite, olivine and so on. They are also the major
ordinary minerals of the lithosphere.
The weight percentage of elements for the solid
earth and the earth’s crust
The primary
elements in the
solid earth
resemble to those
in the Earth’s
crust.But the
percentage of
ferrous takes a
great proportion
of the total in
the solid earth.
the solid earth
the earth's crust
Chapter 4
The atom composition of the lithosphere
The most part of elements in the elemental periodic table
are included in the earth's crust. The 8 major elements,that
is O、Si、Al、Fe、Ca、Na、K and Mg, occupy above 98%, but the
other elements altogether occupy only 1% to 2%. The amount of
oxygen almost occupies the half, as to silicon, about 1/4, and
to aluminum ,about 1/13.
As far as the atom composition is concerned, the amount
of O, Si, Al, H, Na iron, Fe, Ca, Mg and K occupies separately
60.4%, 20.5%, 6.2%, 2.9%, 2.49%,1.9%, 1.88%, 1.77% and 1.37%.
The total amount of the other elements is less than 1%.
Chapter 4
lithosphere
The atom
composition
Chapter 4
The rock composition of the lithosphere
The kinds of the rock:
 Igneous rock: The magmatic rock is the main part of it. The magmatic
rock is formed from the coagulation of the magma and the volume of it
accounts for about 65% of the total. It is divided into the acidic rock,
intermediate rock, basis rock and ultrabasic rock. It also can be divided
into intrusive rock and extrusive one.
Sedimentary rock: The rock exposed on the earth’s surface is weathered
and carried. Finally they are formed into sedimentary rock. It is divided
into the clastic rock, the clay rock and the biochemistry rock.
 Metamorphic rock: The changing process of rock caused by inner force
of the earth is called metamorphism. The rock caused by metamorphism is
the metamorphic rock. The factors impacting the metamorphism are
temperature, the press factor and the chemical factor.
The rock composition of the earth’s crust
and the earth’s surface (Skinner etc.)
If, according to the origin of the rock, make metamorphic into igneous rock or
sedimentary rock. In the earth’s crust, the amount of igneous rock accounts for 95%
and that of sedimentary rock only account for only 5%. But the amount of
sedimentary rock covers 75% of the whole earth’s surface while that of igneous rock
only cover 25%.
The whole earth's crust
the earth’s surface
Of the
Of Sedimentary rock
Of Sedimentary rock
Of Igneous rock
Of Igneous
rock
The sketch map of the body of the intrusive
rock and the extrusive rock
The size, shape and the touching relationship with the around rock of the rock body are
considered as the forming shape of metamorphic rock. According to the depth and shape of
rock body in the earth’s crust, metamorphic rock was divided into erupting rock body and
intrusive one. The latter is subdivided into the deep rock body and the shallow one.
According to the relationship between the rock body and its upper one, it may be divided
into lopolith (②),laccolith(④),sill (③), rock saddle (⑤), stock (⑥), rock bump (⑧), dike (⑨)
etc. meeting with the below picture. In the following of the map, ① is batholith, ⑦ is the
magma bottom cliff.
Chapter 4
Several kinds of bedding of sedimentary rock
The sedimentary rock is the secondary rock formed by the outside forces.
There are secondary minerals, the organic substances and the fossil in the
sedimentary rock. The most outstanding characteristic of sedimentary rock is
stratified. The change of rock strata in the vertical and horizontal direction is
the reflection of sedimentary environment and the characters when
sedimentary rock was formed. Sedimentary rock has many kinds of structure.
The most outstanding of them is bedding structure. Bedding means the
structure formed by the change of composition, structure, granularity and the
color of rock along the vertical direction. It indicates that bedding is formed
in sequences.
Several kinds of bedding
Horizontal bedding
Undulance bedding
Lens bedding
Stave bedding
Interleaving bedding
Chapter 4
Sedimentary rock and bedding
Chapter 4
The interrelation of three main kinds of rock
Igneous
rock
metamorphism
Sedimentary
rock
embedding
lihification
Transit
sediment
collapse separating
dissolve eroding
Metamorphic
rock
Chapter 4
The sketch map of the rock translation circulation
The sun energy
extrusive Igneous rock
the collapse separating
dissolve eroding
transition and
sediment of sediment
outcrop for
the rising and
the denudation of
the rising
of magma
The
embedding
and
Lihification
the earth's crust
inbreaking Igneous rock
rising
of the
inrushing
magma
sedimentary rock
metamorphism
Metamorphic
rock
metamorphism
melt
the radiation energy
Chapter 4
The structure of the lithosphere
The vertical Delamination :
The horizontal differentiation:
The lithosphere includes the
The thickness, composition and structure of
earth's crust and the upper Mantle.
the lithosphere differ from regions to regions.
The earth's crust may be divided
For example, the earth's crust can be divided
into the upper one and the lower
into the continent’s one and the ocean’s one.
one. The upper layer is granite
The ocean’s crust is thin but the continent’s
stratum and the lower one is
basalt stratum.
crust is thick.
Chapter 4
The structure of the inner earth
The earth has the
characteristics of sphere
structure and it can be
divided into the interior
sphere and the exterior one.
The interior sphere
includes the earth crust,
the mantle and the
centrosphere. The
lithosphere includes the
earth’s crust and the upper
mantle.
Inner
core
center
outer
core
mantle
Earth’s
crust
Chapter 4
The layers of the earth
According to the distributions of transmit velocity of the
earthquake wave in the places with different depth
underground, there are two important interfaces where the
earthquake’s transmit velocity change greatly. The first lies in
the place 33 km below the earth’s surface and is named as
Mohorovičić discontinuity. The second lies in the place 2900
km below the earth’s surface and is named as Gutenberg
discontinuity. The earth is divided into three big layers by
these two interfaces: the Earth Crust, Mantle and
Centrospheres. This three big layers may be divided into
seven layers.
Chapter 4
Layers of the earth
Layers
Thickness（km）
Earth Crust
0-33
Mohuo discontinuity
Mantle
The upper mantle
33-410
Transition layer
410-1000
The bottom mantle
1000-2900
Gutenberg discontinuity
Centrosphere
The exterior
centrosphere
2900-4980
Transition layer
4980-5720
The inner
centrosphere
Chapter 4
The types and the average thickness
of Earth Crust （By LuoNuofu，1967)
The Earth Crust is the solid earth’s surface layer above the
Mohuo surface. Its thickness is approximately 1/400 of the earth’s
radius. According to the earth’s physical data, there is great
difference of the thickness of Earth Crust. It differs between 5 km
to 70 km. The average thickness of the continent crust is more than
37 km and that of the ocean crust is about 7 km. Commonly to say,
that of mountain and the plateau is thicker than that of other places.
The thickness of Qinghai-Tibetan plateau is more than 70 km.
Chapter 4
The area and average thickness of Earth Crust
Earth Crust types
Area(106km2)
Average thickness(km)
Continent type
149
43.6
Subcontinent type
64.9
23.7
Ocean type
269.1
7.3
Whole Earth Crust
510
20
Chapter 4
The movement of the lithosphere
The types of the movement:
The horizontal movement (mountain-making
movement) and the vertical movement(continent
-making movement)
Chapter 4
The types of the movement of the lithosphere
Fold: The curving of the rock strata is named fold; Anticline and syncline; the type of
fold; Inversion of relief.
Fracture: There will be fracture and the movement when rock is forced. This is called
fracture. Usually, the rupture structure is divided into joint and fault.
Volcano: The phenomenon that the magma spurts out of the earth’s surface is called
volcano break forth. The primary volcano regions are loop Pacific Ocean volcano region,
the Alpine- Himalayas volcano region and the Atlantic sea mountain volcano region.
Earthquake: The sudden quiver of the earth is earthquake. The typical earthquake
region are loop Pacific Ocean earthquake region, Mediterranean sea － Himalayas
earthquake region, the ocean middle ridge’s earthquake region and the continent rift valley
earthquake region.
Chapter 4
The movement of the lithosphere
The Theory of Plate tectonic
The lithosphere is divided into the Pacific Plate, the
European-Asian Plate, the Australian-Indian Plate, the
African Plate, the South American Plate, the North
American Plate and the Antarctica plate.
The mechanism of the lithosphere movement
The boundary of Plate: Divergent plate boundary, convergent plate boundary, diving
plate boundary.
The movement of Plate and the evolvement the Ocean and the drift of the
Continent: J. T. Wilson divided the formation of plate movement into six phases:
embryo time; infancy time; manhood time; wane time; remains time and the wither
away time.
The forces of plate movement: Plate tectonic theory thinks that the movement of
Plate is forced by plate convection.
The explain to the distributing law of earthquake and volcano: The earthquake
and volcano distribute on the edge of plate.
The character of the lithosphere movement
unsymmetry, non-stable , directional
Chapter 4
The types of fold
erection fold
slant fold
revere fold
plane lie fold
turn coil fold
Chapter 4
Several types of fault
The obvious movement of rock along the fracture plane is fault.
Elements of fault: fault plane, fault line, fault block and fault distance. Fault is
divided into normal fault, reverse fault, plane push fault and slanting slip fault.
Before fault massif
reverse fault
normal fault
slanting slip fault
Strike-slip fault
Chapter 4
Fault physiognomy
Fault of Huashan
mountain
Colorado big gorge
Chapter 4
Graben and Horst
In the natural, it is very normal that many faults appear by means of group.
From the horizontal direction, there are parallel shape, the wild goose travel shape,
the ring shape and the emit shape etc. From the vertical direction, there are stairs
shape, furl shape , Graben and Horst etc.
Graben
Horst
Chapter 4
Volcano
seabed volcano
The eructation of metamorphic rock
from the earth’s surface is named the
volcano. The break forth of volcano is the
reflection of release of the earth’s inside
substance and energy. It is very
complicated of the complication of
volcano eructation.There are gas,liquid
and the solid.
volcano lake
Fuji
volcano’s eructation
Chapter 4
The pictures of volcano eruption
Chapter 4
The epicenter, epicenter’s distance, hypocenter’s
depth and the hypocenter
The places underground where there is earthquake is the hypocenter.
Its vertical projection on the earth’s surface is epicenter. The
distance from the epicenter to the hypocenter is the hypocenter’s
depth. According to the depth, the earthquake is divided into the
shallow hypocenter earthquake (the hypocenter’s depth is less than
70km), the middle hypocenter earthquake (the hypocenter’s depth is 70300km) and the deep hypocenter earthquake (the hypocenter’s depth is
more than 300km). Most earthquakes belong to the shallow hypocenter
earthquake.The number of them occupies about 72.5% of the total and
the amount of energy they release occupies 85%. The number of the deep
hypocenter earthquake only occupies 4% and the amount of energy they
release occupies about 3%. Although some of the level of the middle
hypocenter earthquake is very high, it does little harm. The distance
from the observation point (such as the earthquake station) to the
epicenter is named the epicenter’s distance. Usually, the earthquake
which epicenter’s distance is less than 100 km is named local
earthquake. The earthquake which epicenter’s distance is between 100
km and 1000 km is near earthquake and if the epicenter’s distance is
more than 1000 km, far earthquake.
Chapter 4
Epicenter
epicenter
distance
observe point
hypocenter’s depth
hypocenter
video frequency enjoy
Chapter 4
The relationship between the distribution of world
earthquake and plate tectonic
The red points in the above map is the epicenter of shallow
hypocenter and deep hypocenter earthquake between 1962-1967. The
epicenter of the other period is similar to these.
Chapter 4
Plate tectonic of the earth’s surface
The lithosphere is divided into the Pacific Plate, the EuropeanAsian Plate, the Australian-Indian Plate, the African Plate, the
South American Plate, the North American Plate, the Antarctica Plate
and Arabian small plates. It is distributed in the following map.
Chapter 4
Six big Plates
north circle
American plate
Asia-Europe Plate
North tropic
Africa Plate
South tropic
Equator
Pacific Plate
Indian ocean Plate
South circle
Antarctica plate
Chapter 4
Transform fault
On the boundary of the transform fault , the new fault is
not formed and the old fault is not vanished too. There is
only the horizontal movement of the Plate.
Chapter 4
Six phases of the J.T.Wilson’s gyration（Strahler,1997)
Stage4a
Embryonic basin
Stage 1
Continental
Stage 2
Ocean
lithosphere
Stage4b
lithosphere
Island arc
Young basin
Stage 5
Stage 3
New subduction boundary
Arc-continent
Passive margin
Old basin
Continent-continent orogen
Stage 6
Chapter 4
The convection of Mantle and
the movement of Plates （Strahler)
Plate tectonic theory thinks that the movement of plate is forced by the
mantle. Mantle is heated unequally. In the places with higher temperature , the
matter in the Mantle goes up but is hindered by the lithosphere, so they move
to the two sides under the lithosphere and go down to the places with lower
temperature. It forms a whole convection gyration of Mantle. It leads to the
separation of Mantle and the formation of the new ocean’s crust on the
convection rising place.
plate subduction boundary
Lithosphere
continent
Ocean lithosphere
plate expanding boundary
Chapter 4
The structure and the outline of the solid
earth’s surface
The distributing of the sea and continent:
The area of the ocean is more than that of the continent;
The distribution of the sea and the continent is asymmetry;
Seven continents and four oceans;
The outline of the continent looks like a converse triangle;
The big island group distributes mostly on the eastern shore of
the continents ;
There are not only many islands, but also series of island arcs on
the eastern shore of the continents;
Some continents’ outlines have the obvious comparability and
inosculating character.
Chapter 4
 Ground’s undulation:
 The bigger of continent’s area is , the higher
of its average altitude is;
 The bigger of ocean’s area is , the deeper of
its average depth is.
Chapter 4
The distribution of the oceans
and the continents on the earth’s surface
The earth’s surface is divided into the ocean and the
continent.The continuous water body is named world’s ocean which is
the main body of the ocean. The land is enclosed by the ocean but
extruded on the ocean’s surface.The continent is the main body of the
land and the island is the main part of the land.
the north
hemisphere
the south
hemisphere
the land
hemisphere
the west
hemisphere
the water
hemisphere
the east
hemisphere
Chapter 4
The comparison of the ocean’s area and
land’s area of two hemispheres
East hemisphere
West hemisphere
North hemisphere
South hemisphere
Water hemisphere
Land hemisphere
Ocean（％）
62.0
80.0
60.7
80.9
89.0
53.0
Land（％）
38.0
20.0
39.3
19.1
11.0
47.0
The earth’s surface includes land and ocean. Because the area of the sea
and that of continent differ a lot, the sea’s area is more than the land’s area
and the distribution is not uniformity. It is obvious that the land’s area of the
eastern hemisphere(38％) is more than western one(20%) and the land’s
area of the north hemisphere(39.3％) is more than that of south one(19.1%).
The land’s area of land hemisphere is 47%, but the ocean's area of water
hemisphere is 89%。
Chapter 4
The relationship between Continent’s
area and the average height
There are great differences between the average
height of every continent above the sea level and the
average depth of ocean’s bottom under the sea level.
The average height of the Antarctica is 2263m and it
is always regarded as the highest continent in the
world. It is caused by the huge thick icecap on its
cover. As far as the earth’s surface is concerned, the
height of Asia is the tallest one (950m), then the
north America (700m), the Africa(650m), the south
America(600m)and the Europe(300m). Obviously, the more
the continent’s area is, the taller its altitude is. It
is also true that the more the ocean’s area is, the
deeper its average depth is.
Chapter 4
The area and average height of the Continents
Continent
Asia
Africa
North America
South America
Antarctica
Europe
Australia
Average or
sum
Area(106km2)
Percentage to the
whole
land area(%)
Average
height (m)
44.4
30.6
22.0
17.9
15.6
10.4
7.8
149.0
29.8
20.5
14.5
12.0
10.5
7.0
5.2
100
950
650
700
600
2000
300
400
875
Chapter 4
The percentage of area of solid earth’s surface on different altitude
The altitude of
land’s surface is
between -1000m and
+2000m. Its average
land’s altitude is
875m。The altitude
of seabed’s surface is
between - 3000m and
-6000m. Its average
land’s altitude is 3795m。
(According to Myllie, 1976)
Chapter 4
Tectonic landform
Geotectonic

landform

The landform which is formed and
controlled by the land tectonic
movement is called tectonic
physiognomy. For example, the
continent and the ocean, trench and
mid-ridge of the ocean, the island arc
and the marginal sea, the continental
shelf and the continental slope.
Chapter 4
Regional
tectonic
landform
It is formed on the basis of the
geotectonic landform. But it has
regional character. The typical
representations are the plateau, the
plain, the basin, the volcano of the
sea’s bottom and so on.
Chapter 4
Local
tectonic
landform
It is formed on the basis of the
geotectonic
landform
and
regional tectonic landform. But it
is impacted by local tectonic
action. It’s divided into fold
landform, fault landform, volcano
landform, lithology tectonic
landform and so on.
Chapter 4
Monoclinal landform
There are two types of monoclinal landform: cuesta (monoclinal
hill ) and the pig back ridge(pig back hill). When the rock strata’s
dip angle is very small, the dip angle of hillside developing in the
same direction of terrane is small too. But that of the other hillside
is comparative precipitous. So the two hillsides are
dissymmetrical. This kind of hill is named the Monoclinal hill.
Chapter 4
When the rock strata’s dip
angle of the Monoclinal hill is
big enough, two hillsides are
comparatively precipitous and
symmetrical, it looks like the
pig back. That is why it is
named the pig back ridge hill.
pig back ridge
Monoclinal hill
Chapter 4
The lithosphere and human beings
Solid support, origin of the life matter, origin of the production
matter, element of the life, natural disaster
Volcano
Mineral
Human
beings
Rock
Earthquake
Elemental composition
of Earth’s crust