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Chapter 16 The Diversity of Life Lectures by Gregory Ahearn University of North Florida Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.. 16.1 How Are Organisms Named And Classified? Organisms are placed into categories on the basis of their evolutionary relationships. • There are eight major categories. • Domain, kingdom, phylum, order, class, family, genus, species • These categories form a nested hierarchy in which each level includes all the ones before it. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.1 How Are Organisms Named And Classified? Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.1 How Are Organisms Named And Classified? Each species has a unique, two-part name. • The scientific name of an organism is formed from the genus and species categories. • Each genus includes a group of closely related species, and within each species are individuals that can interbreed. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.1 How Are Organisms Named And Classified? Each species has a unique, two-part name (continued). • Thus, the genus Sialia (bluebirds) includes the eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis), the western bluebird (Sialia mexicana), and the mountain bluebird (Sialia currucoides)—similar birds that do not interbreed. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.1 How Are Organisms Named And Classified? Three species of bluebird Fig. 16-1 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.1 How Are Organisms Named And Classified? Each species has a unique, two-part name (continued). • Each two-part scientific name is unique; referring to an organism by its scientific name rules out any chance of ambiguity or confusion. • By convention, scientific names are underlined or italicized. • The first letter of the genus name is always capitalized, and the first letter of the species name is always lowercase. • The species name is never used alone but is always paired with its genus name. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.1 How Are Organisms Named And Classified? PLAY Animation—Taxonomic Classification Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.1 How Are Organisms Named And Classified? Classification originated as a hierarchy of categories. • Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) was among the first to classify living things; he classified about 500 organisms based on structural complexity, behavior, and degree of development at birth. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.1 How Are Organisms Named And Classified? Classification originated as a hierarchy of categories (continued). • Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) placed each organism into a series of hierarchically arranged categories on the basis of its resemblance to other life-forms, and introduced the scientific name composed of genus and species. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.1 How Are Organisms Named And Classified? Classification originated as a hierarchy of categories (continued). • Charles Darwin (1809–1882) demonstrated that all organisms are connected by common ancestry; the more categories two organisms share, the closer their evolutionary relationship. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.1 How Are Organisms Named And Classified? Biologists identify features that reveal evolutionary relationships. • Scientists who devise classifications must distinguish informative similarities caused by common ancestry from uninformative similarities that result from convergent evolution. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.1 How Are Organisms Named And Classified? Biologists identify features that reveal evolutionary relationships (continued). • In the search for informative similarities, biologists look at many kinds of characteristics. • Anatomical similarities play a key role in classification. • Molecular similarities are also useful in classification. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.1 How Are Organisms Named And Classified? Microscopic structures may be used to classify organisms. Fig. 16-2 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.2 What Are The Domains Of Life? Before 1970, all forms of life were classified into two kingdoms: Animalia and Plantae. • All bacteria, fungi, and photosynthetic eukaryotes were considered to be plants, and all other organisms were classified as animals. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.2 What Are The Domains Of Life? The five-kingdom system improved classification. • Robert H. Whittaker’s five-kingdom system placed all prokaryotic organisms into a single kingdom, and divided the eukaryotes into four kingdoms. • The prokaryotes were placed in the kingdom Monera. • The five-kingdom system was an improvement over the two-kingdom system. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.2 What Are The Domains Of Life? A three-domain system more accurately reflects life’s history. • Carl Woese studied the biochemistry of the Moneran organisms. • Despite their superficial similarities, these two groups are actually radically different. Fig. 16-3 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.2 What Are The Domains Of Life? A three-domain system more accurately reflects life’s history (continued). • He found them to be divided into two groups based on the nucleotide sequences in the RNA in their ribosomes, and called the two groups the Bacteria and the Archaea. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.2 What Are The Domains Of Life? The tree of life • The five-kingdom system was replaced by one that divides life into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eurkarya. BACTERIA ARCHAEA EUKARYA animals fungi plants protists Fig. 16-4 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.2 What Are The Domains Of Life? PLAY Animation—Tree of Life Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.2 What Are The Domains Of Life? Kingdom-level classification remains unsettled. • Biologists recognize 15 kingdoms among the Bacteria. • There are three kingdoms in the Archaea. • There are four kingdoms among the Eukarya. • Animals • Plants • Fungi • Protists Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Earth’s first organisms were prokaryotes— single-celled microbes that lacked organelles such as a nucleus, chloroplasts, and mitochondria. • In terms of abundance, prokaryotes are Earth’s predominant form of life. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Bacteria and Archaea are fundamentally different. • Two of life’s domains, Bacteria and Archaea, consist entirely of prokaryotes; yet there are fundamental differences between them. • Bacterial cells contain molecules of the polymer peptidoglycan, which strengthens the cell wall. • These two groups also differ in the structure and composition of the plasma membrane, ribosomes, and RNA polymerases, as well as in the processes of transcription and translation. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Classification of prokaryotes within each domain is difficult. • The biochemical differences between archaea and bacteria make distinguishing the two domains an easy matter, but classification within each domain poses challenges. • Prokaryotes have been classified on the basis of such features as shape, means of locomotion, pigments, nutrient requirements, the appearance of colonies, and staining properties. • More recently, the comparisons of DNA and RNA nucleotide sequences have been used in prokaryotic classification. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Prokaryotic adaptations provide mobility and protection. • Prokaryotes are usually small, 0.2 to 10 micrometers in diameter, compared to 10 to 100 micrometers for eukaryotic cells. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea The cell walls that surround prokaryotic cells give characteristic shapes to different types of bacteria and archaea; the most common shapes are spherical, rodlike, and corkscrew-shaped. Fig. 16-5 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Prokaryotic adaptations provide mobility and protection (continued). • Some prokaryotes are mobile; some may have flagella. • Flagella can rotate rapidly and propel the organism through the environment. Fig. 16-6 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Prokaryotic adaptations provide mobility and protection (continued). • Many prokaryotes form films on surfaces. • Some prokaryotes secrete slime that allows them to adhere to surfaces, or can aggregate into biofilms made up of one or more species in colonies. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Prokaryotic adaptations provide mobility and protection (continued). • Biofilms protect the embedded bacteria against a variety of attacks, such as from antibiotics and disinfectants. • Some of the common biofilms are responsible for tooth decay, gum disease, and ear infections. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Protective endospores allow some bacteria to withstand adverse conditions. Fig. 16-7 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Prokaryotic adaptations provide mobility and protection (continued). • The endospore forms within the bacterium, and contains genetic material and a few enzymes encased in a thick protective coat. • Metabolic activity ceases until the spore encounters favorable conditions, which may take an extremely long period of time. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Prokaryotes are specialized for specific habitats. • Prokaryotes occupy virtually every habitat, including those where extreme conditions keep out other forms of life. • Many archaea can live in hot springs at temperatures up to 110°C; they can live at extreme pressures beneath the Earth’s surface, and at very cold temperatures of the Antarctic. • They can live in the Dead Sea, with salt concentrations seven times those of the ocean. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Prokaryotes exhibit diverse metabolisms. • Many prokaryotes are anaerobes; their metabolisms do not require oxygen. • Others are opportunistic, using anaerobic respiration when oxygen is absent and switching to aerobic respiration when oxygen is available. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Prokaryotes exhibit diverse metabolisms (continued). • Prokaryotes feed on many things, including sugars, proteins, and fats, but also petroleum, methane, benzene, and toluene; some can use hydrogen, sulfur, ammonia, iron, and nitrate. • Some prokaryotes possess chlorophyll and are photosynthetic. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission. • Most prokaryotes reproduce asexually by binary fission, which produces identical copies of the original cell. • They reproduce rapidly and can evolve quickly to adapt to changing conditions. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Prokaryotes affect humans and other organisms. • Prokaryotes play important roles in animal nutrition. • Many animals that eat plants cannot digest the cellulose in plants themselves and rely on symbiotic bacteria in their digestive tracts, which are able to digest cellulose, to liberate nutrients from this food source. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Prokaryotes affect humans and other organisms (continued). • Many foods that humans eat are produced by the actions of bacteria, including cheese, yogurt, and sauerkraut. • Some bacteria in human intestines feed on undigested food and synthesize nutrients, such as vitamin K and vitamin B12, which the human body absorbs. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Prokaryotes capture the nitrogen needed by plants. • Plants obtain nitrogen for growth from bacteria that live in the soil, or from nitrogen-fixing bacteria in special nodules on the roots of certain plants. • These include legumes such as alfalfa, soybeans, lupines, and clover. • These bacteria capture nitrogen gas from air in the soil and combine it with hydrogen to produce ammonia that plants use directly. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Prokaryotes are nature’s recyclers. • Prokaryotes consume the organic molecules in the dead bodies of plants and animals, decomposing their wastes and recycling them to the environment. • Prokaryotes can clean up pollution. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Prokaryotes are nature’s recyclers (continued). • Nearly anything that human beings can synthesize can be broken down by some prokaryote, including detergents, toxic pesticides, and harmful industrial chemicals. • Even oil can be broken down by prokaryotes. • The breakdown of pollutants by bacteria is called bioremediation. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Some anaerobic bacteria produce dangerous poisons. • Some bacteria produce toxins that attack the nervous system. • Clostridium tetani causes tetanus. • C. botulinum causes botulism (lethal food poisoning). Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Humans battle bacterial diseases old and new. • Pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria synthesize toxic substances that cause diseases in humans. • Bubonic plague (“Black death”) killed 100 million people during the fourteenth century. • Tuberculosis, gonorrhea, syphilis, and cholera are bacterial diseases long associated with humans. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.3 Bacteria And Archaea Common bacterial species can be harmful. • Streptococcus causes strep throat. • Another causes pneumonia, which clogs the lungs with fluid. • A common bacterium of the human digestive tract, Escherichia coli (E. coli), normally is benign but can transform into a pathogenic form that can be transmitted from human to human. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists The protists are eukaryotes that are not a plant, an animal, or a fungus. • Most protists are single-celled. • While most members of this group are small, they are incredibly diverse in their modes of reproduction and in their structural and physiological innovations. • Some of the larger protists are colonies of single-celled individuals, while others are multicellular organisms. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Protists affect humans and other organisms. • Protists have both positive and negative effects upon humans. • The primary positive impact comes from the ecological roles of photosynthetic marine protists. • On the negative side are the many human diseases caused by parasitic protists. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Some of the harmful and helpful protists are listed on the slides that follow. • Stramenopiles include photosynthetic and nonphotosynthetic organisms, and include the diatoms and the brown algae. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Diatoms encase themselves within glassy (silica) walls, and are photosynthetic phytoplankton that float passively in lakes and oceans. Fig. 16-8 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Brown algae dominate in cool coastal waters and form multicellular aggregations known as brown algae seaweeds. Fig. 16-9 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Alveolates include parasites, predators, and phytoplankton. • Most dinoflagellates are photosynthetic and move with the use of their two whiplike flagella. • They are important components of the phytoplankton and are food sources for larger organisms. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Dinoflagellates Fig. 16-10 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Alveolates include parasites, predators, and phytoplankton (continued). • They cause “red tides” during population explosions, which kill fish by suffocation due to lack of oxygen from the decay of billions of dinoflagellates. • Shellfish filter these from the sea and concentrate the toxins that they produce, causing shellfish poisoning. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists A red tide Fig. 16-11 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Apicomplexans are parasitic and have no means of locomotion. • These live inside the bodies or cells of their hosts. • An example is the malarial parasite Plasmodium, which lives in the Anopheles mosquito and is transmitted to a human victim by the insect. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Ciliates are the most complex of the alveolates. • They possess hairlike outgrowths of the plasma membrane that are used for locomotion. • Two examples are Paramecium and the predator, Didinium. Fig. 16-12 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Cercozoans have thin pseudopods and elaborate shells. • They possess flexible plasma membranes that can extend in any direction to form finger-like projections called pseudopods. • The pseudopods of this group extend through a shell and are threadlike; the largest group is the foraminiferans. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Cercozoans have thin pseudopods and elaborate shells (continued). • The shells of foraminiferans are made of calcium carbonate (chalk) that are pierced by many holes through which the pseudopods extend. • The chalky shells of these organisms may accumulate over millions of years to form deposits of limestone. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Foraminiferans Fig. 16-13 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Amoebozoans inhabit aquatic and terrestrial environments. • This group moves by extending finger-shaped pseudopods; they don’t have shells and are composed of the amoebas and the slime molds. • Amoebas are predators that stalk and engulf prey. • The dysentery-causing amoeba multiplies in the intestinal wall, triggering severe diarrhea. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Amoebas Fig. 16-14 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Amoebozoans inhabit aquatic and terrestrial environments (continued). • Slime molds are decomposers that inhabit the forest floor. • The life cycle goes through two phases: a mobile feeding stage, and a stationary reproductive stage called a fruiting body. • There are two kinds of slime molds: acellular and cellular. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Acellular forms: the organism is a single mass of cytoplasm that may spread over an area of several square yards; this structure is called a plasmodium • Dry conditions stimulate the formation of a fruiting body, which has haploid spores. Fig. 16-15 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Green algae live mostly in ponds and lakes. • Some forms are small and live in freshwater, such as Spirogyra, which forms thin filaments from long chains of cells. Fig. 16-16 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.4 Protists Green algae live mostly in ponds and lakes (continued). • A marine example, Ulva, or sea lettuce, has leaves the size of lettuce leaves. • Green algae are important because it is believed that they were ancestral to the earliest plants. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants What are some of the properties that distinguish plants from other organisms? • Plants have chlorophyll for photosynthesis. • Plant reproduction features alternation of generations. • Plants have dependent embryos. • Plants have roots or rootlike structures that anchor it and absorb water and nutrient from the soil. • Plants have a waxy cuticle that covers the surface of leaves and stems, limiting water loss. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants Two major groups of land plants arose from ancient algal ancestors: the nonvascular plants and the vascular plants. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants Nonvascular plants lack conducting structures, true roots, leaves, or stems. • They have rhizoids that anchor the plant and bring water and nutrients into the plant body • Body size is limited due to the lack of conducting tissues, and slow diffusion must distribute water and nutrients throughout the plant body. • Nonvascular plants include the hornworts, liverworts, and mosses. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants Nonvascular plants Fig. 16-17 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants The reproductive structures of nonvascular plants are protected. • An adaptation to terrestrial life is their enclosed reproductive structures, which prevent the gametes from drying out. • There are two types of structures, one in which eggs develop and one in which sperm are formed. • In all vascular plants, the sperm must swim to the egg through a film of water. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants Vascular plants have conducting vessels that also provide support. • The conducting cells of vascular plants are called vessels, which contain lignin that serve support and conducting functions. • Vascular plants can grow tall because of vessels, both because of the support these structures provide as well as the conducting of water and nutrients between the roots to the leaves. • There are two groups of vascular plants: the seedless vascular plants and the seed plants. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants Seedless vascular plants include the club mosses, horsetails, and ferns. • These plants require swimming sperm and water for reproduction. • They propagate by spores, not seeds. • Their ancestors were larger than present-day forms, and they dominated the landscape hundreds of millions of years ago. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants Seedless vascular plants Fig. 16-18 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants Seed plants dominate the land, aided by two important adaptations: pollen and seeds. • Pollen grains are tiny structures that carry sperm-producing cells. • Pollen grains are dispersed by wind or by animal pollinators, such as bees. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants Seeds • Analogous to the eggs of birds and reptiles, seeds consist of an embryonic plant, a supply of food for the embryo, and a protective outer coat. • The seed coat keeps the embryo in a state of suspended animation until conditions are good for growth. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants Seed plants are grouped into two general types: gymnosperms, which lack flowers, and angiosperms, the flowering plants. • Gymnosperms evolved earlier than the flowering plants. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants One group, the conifers, include the pines, firs, spruce, hemlocks, and cypresses that are still very abundant on our planet today. Fig. 16-19a Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants The other group of gymnosperms, such as the ginkgos and cycads, have declined to a small remnant of their former range and abundance. Fig. 16-19b,c Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants Angiosperms are flowering seed plants. • Three major adaptations have made angiosperms so successful as plants. 1. Flowers: contain male and female parts of the plant; are used to attract insects as pollinators 2. Fruits: encourage animals to eat the fruit, which contains the fertilized seed of the plant, thus dispersing the plant 3. Broad leaves: collect more sunlight for photosynthesis Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants Flowering plants Fig. 16-20 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.5 Plants PLAY Animation—Evolution of Plant Structure Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.6 Fungi Fungi have distinctive adaptations. • A typical fungus is a mushroom, which is actually the reproductive part of a more extensive organism. • Fungi feed off dead material by secreting digestive fluids that break down their food outside of their bodies. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.6 Fungi Fungi have distinctive adaptations (continued). • The body of a fungus is called a mycelium and is one-cell thick. • The mycelium is made up of extensive numbers of filaments called hyphae, which grow across a food source. hyphae (a) Mycelium (b) Hyphae Fig. 16-21 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.6 Fungi Most fungi can reproduce both sexually and asexually. • Fungi reproduce by spores that are cast to the wind. Fig. 16-22 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.6 Fungi Most fungi can reproduce both sexually and asexually (continued). • Fungi can reproduce both asexually and sexually. • Sexual reproduction is reserved for periods of environmental change or stress. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.6 Fungi Fungi affect humans and other organisms. • Fungi play a major role in the destruction of dead plant tissue by being able to digest both lignin and cellulose, the molecules that make up wood. • Fungi are saprophytes (feeding on dead organisms) and consume the dead of all kingdoms. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.6 Fungi Fungi affect humans and other organisms (continued). • The activities of fungi and bacteria return nutrients and minerals to the environment. • Antibiotics—such as penicillin, oleandomycin, and cephalosporin—are made from fungi to combat bacterial diseases. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.6 Fungi Fungi make important contributions to gastronomy. • The fungi we consume directly, such as wild and cultivated mushrooms, make important contributions to human nutrition. Fig. 16-23 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.6 Fungi Fungi make important contributions to gastronomy (continued). • The world’s most famous cheeses—including Roquefort, Camembert, Stilton, and Gorgonzola—gain their distinct flavors from molds that grow on them as they ripen. • Other foods and beverages that depend on yeasts for their production are bread, wine, and beer. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.6 Fungi Fungi attack plants that are important to people. • Fungi cause the majority of plant diseases, and some of the plants that the infect are important to humans. • Especially damaging are plant pests called rusts and smuts, which cause billions of dollar’s worth of damage to grain crops annually. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.6 Fungi Corn smut Fig. 16-24 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.6 Fungi Fungi include parasites that attack humans directly. • Some of these are athlete’s foot, jock itch, vaginal infections, and ringworm. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.6 Fungi Fungi can produce toxins. • Molds of the genus Aspergillus produce highly toxic, carcinogenic compounds known as aflatoxins. • Some foods, such as peanuts, seem to be especially susceptible to attack by Aspergillus. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Characteristics of animals • Animals are multicellular. • Animals get their energy by consuming other organisms. • Animals reproduce sexually. • Animal cells lack a cell wall. • Animals are mobile. • Animals react rapidly to external stimuli. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals For convenience, animals are categorized as either vertebrates (with backbones) or invertebrates (without backbones). • Sponges have a simple body plan, lack tissues or organs, and are colonies of singlecelled organisms. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Sponges Fig. 16-25 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Sponges (continued) • Water enters through numerous tiny pores in the body, and leaves through fewer, large openings. • Oxygen and food is filtered out of the water during passage. • Reproduction can be asexual through budding, or sexual by the release of eggs and sperm into the water. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Cnidarians are well-armed predators. • Representatives are jellyfish, corals, and sea anemones. Fig. 16-26 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Cnidarians are well-armed predators (continued). • Their body parts are arranged in a circle around the mouth and digestive cavity. • Tentacles are armed with stinging cells that inject poison into prey and kill it so that it can be eaten. • Corals form a large calcium carbonate skeleton that can build up over long periods of time and last long after the animal that built it has died. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Annelids are composed of identical segments. • An example is earthworms with segmented bodies. • Internally, most of the segments contain identical copies of nerves, excretory structures, and muscles. • Representatives are oligochaetes (earthworms), polychaetes (marine worms), and leeches. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Annelids Fig. 16-27 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Most mollusks have shells. • Snails and slugs are collectively called gastropods—they crawl on a muscular foot, and many are protected by shells. • Sea slugs lack shells. • Gastropods feed with a radula, a flexible ribbon of tissue with spines that scrape algae off rocks. • A few gastropod species live on land and use a simple lung for breathing. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Gastropod mollusks Fig. 16-28 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Bivalves are filter feeders. • Scallops, oysters, mussels, and clams are bivalves. • Bivalves have two shells connected by a hinge. Fig. 16-29 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Bivalves are filter feeders (continued). • They use a muscular foot for burrowing in sand or mud. • Scallops lack a foot and move by jet propulsion, achieved by flapping their shells together. • Water is circulated over the gills, which are covered with mucus that traps food particles and conveys them to the mouth. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Cephalopods are marine predators. • All cephalopods are predatory carnivores, and all are marine. • Their foot is developed into tentacles that are used for detecting and grasping prey. • This group has highly developed brains and sensory systems. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals The cephalopods include octopuses, nautiluses, cuttlefish, and squids Fig. 16-30 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Arthropods are the dominant animals on Earth. • The Arthropoda includes the insects, arachnids, and crustaceans. • They all have an exoskeleton; in insects, the body is divided into three parts: head, thorax, and abdomen. • Insects are the only flying invertebrates. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Insects Fig. 16-31 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Arthropods are the dominant animals on Earth (continued). • During their development, insects undergo metamorphosis, a radical change from a juvenile body form to an adult body form. • The immature stage of the insect is referred to as a larva, which grows until it reaches maximum size. • It then forms a nonfeeding stage called a pupa. • An adult emerges from the pupa. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Most arachnids are predatory meat eaters. • They have eight walking legs and are carnivorous, feeding on a liquid diet of blood or predigested prey. • Spiders produce silk from special glands in their abdomens, which they us to build webs to capture prey and to wrap up the prey once it is caught. • Spider silk is amazingly strong; it can be stronger than steel wire of the same size, but is as elastic as rubber. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals The arachnids include spiders, mites, ticks, and scorpions. Fig. 16-32 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Most crustaceans are aquatic. • The crustaceans include crabs, crayfish, lobster, shrimp, and barnacles; they only live in the water. • Crustaceans have two pairs of sensory antennae, but the remaining appendages vary with habitat and lifestyle of the species. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Crustaceans Fig. 16-33 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals The chordates include both invertebrates and vertebrates. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals All chordates have the following features. • The notochord: a stiff, flexible rod that extends the length of the body and provides attachment for muscles • The nerve cord: a dorsal hollow tube; one end becomes the brain during development • Pharyngeal gill slits: these may develop into functional gills or just remain as grooves in early development • A post-anal tail: extends beyond the body, past the anus Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals The invertebrate chordates live in the seas. • The invertebrate chordates are the lancelets and the tunicates. Fig. 16-34 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals The invertebrate chordates live in the seas (continued). • Larvae of lancelets lack a backbone, but the adults possess all four chordate features. • The tunicates (sea squirts) have a larva that swims and has all chordate features. • Adults are attached to the sea bottom and do not move. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Vertebrates have a backbone. • In vertebrates, the embryonic notochord is normally replaced during development by a backbone, or vertebral column. • Vertebrates are represented by fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals; there are more ray-finned fishes than any of the other vertebrate groups. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Ray-finned fishes Fig. 16-35 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Ray-finned fish are an important food source for humans. • Overfishing has sharply reduced the size of the fish populations in the oceans today; some fish species have been reduced to 10% of their numbers when commercial fishing started. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals The amphibians straddle the boundary between aquatic and terrestrial existence. • Amphibians have a three-chambered heart. • Amphibian lungs are poorly developed and have to be supplemented by skin respiration. • Amphibians are tied to the water for reproduction; many undergo metamorphosis with aquatic larval forms and terrestrial adults. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Amphibians Fig. 16-36 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals The reptiles include lizards, snakes, turtles, alligators, and crocodiles. • Many species are completely independent of water as a result of three adaptations: • Evolution of a tough, scaly skin that resists water loss and protects the body • Evolution of internal fertilization • Evolution of a shelled egg Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Reptiles Fig. 16-37 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals One very distinctive group of reptiles is the birds. • Birds have developed feathers, which are highly specialized versions of reptilian body scales. • Modern birds retain scales on their legs, evidence of the ancestry they share with the reptiles. • Birds have hollow bones for flight, and produce a shelled egg. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Birds Fig. 16-38 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals One branch of reptiles gave rise to a group that evolved hair and diverged to form the mammals. • Mammals are named for the milk-producing mammary glands used by female members of the group to suckle their young. • In most mammals, fur protects and insulates the warm body. • The mammals are divided into three groups: montremes, marsupials, and placentals. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Monotremes are found only in Australia and New Guinea, and include the platypus and two species of spiny anteaters, also known as echidnas. Monotremes lay eggs. Fig. 16-39a Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals All mammals except monotremes have embryos that develop in the uterus of the female reproductive tract. • In marsupials, embryos are only in the uterus for a short time and are then born at a very immature stage of development. • Immediately after birth, they crawl to a nipple, firmly grasp it, and complete their development. • In many marsupial species, this postbirth development takes place in a protective pouch. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Marsupials Fig. 16-39b Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Most mammal species are placental mammals. • Compared to marsupials, placental mammals retain their young in the uterus for a much longer period, so that offspring complete their embryonic development before being born. • The bat, mole, impala, whale, seal, monkey, and cheetah exemplify the radiation of mammals into nearly all habitats, with bodies adapted to their varied lifestyles. • The largest group of placental mammals are the bats and rodents. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc. 16.7 Animals Placental mammals Fig. 16-39c,d Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Inc.