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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH What Is Qualitative Research? is research that addresses political objectives through techniques that allow the researcher to provide elaborate(ayrıntılı)interpretations of political phenomena without depending on numerical measurement. Its focus is on discovering true inner meanings and new insights. Qualitative research is less structured than most quantitative approaches. It does not rely on self-response questionnaires containing structured response formats. Instead, it is more researcher-dependent in that the researcher must extract meaning from unstructured responses, such as text from a recorded interview or a collage representing the meaning of some experience. Uses of Qualitative Research The researcher has many tools available and the research design should try to match the best tool to the research objective. The less specific the research objective, the more likely that qualitative research tools will be appropriate. Araştırmanın amacı ne kadar belirginleşirse, nitel araştırma araçları o kadar uygun olur. WHEN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH BE USED? 1. When it is difficult to develop specific and actionable problem statements or research objectives. 2. When the research objective is to develop an understanding of some phenomena in great detail and in much depth. 3. When the research objective is to learn how a phenomena occurs in its natural setting or to learn how to express some concept in colloquial(argo) terms. For example, how do voters discuss the political issues in their daily life? 4. When a fresh approach to studying some problem is needed. This is particularly the case when quantitative research has yielded less than satisfying results. Qualitative tools can yield unique insights, many of which may lead the organization in new directions. QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Qualitative research can accomplish research objectives that quantitative research cannot. Similarly truthful, but no more so, quantitative research can accomplish objectives that qualitative research cannot. The key to successfully using either is to match the right approach to the right research context. Many good research projects combine both qualitative and quantitative research. For instance, developing valid survey measures requires first a deep understanding of the concept to be measured and a description of the way these ideas are expressed in everyday language. Quantitative business research can be defined as business research that addresses research objectives through empirical assessments that involve numerical measurement and analysis approaches. There are great differences between the quantitative and qualitative approaches to studying and understanding subjects. The arguments between qualitative and quantitative business researchers about their relative strengths and weaknesses are of real practical value. This means that seeking a singular and uniform approach to supporting decision-makers by focusing on one approach is useless. Business decision makers use both approaches and will continue to need both. The distinction between qualitative and quantitative research can be in the context of research designs. There is a close parallel in the distinctions between ‘exploratory and conclusive research’ and ‘qualitative and quantitative research’. There is a parallel, but the terms are not identical. (fark) Conversely, there may be circumstances where quantitative measurements are used to conclusively answer specific hypotheses or research questions using descriptive or experimental techniques. Quantitative researchers direct a considerable amount of activity toward measuring concepts with scales that either directly or indirectly provide numeric values. The numeric values can then be used in statistical computations and hypothesis testing. qualitative researchers are more interested in observing, listening, and interpreting. For these reasons, qualitative research is said to be more subjective, meaning that the results are researcher-dependent. Different researchers may reach different conclusions based on the same interview. In that respect, qualitative research lacks the ability of different individuals following the same procedures to produce the same results or come to the same conclusion. Qualitative research seldom involves samples with hundreds of respondents. Instead, a handful of people are usually the source of qualitative data. This is perfectly acceptable in discovery-oriented research. Qualitative research is most often used in exploratory designs. Small samples, interpretive procedures that require subjective judgments, and the unstructured interview format all make traditional hypotheses testing difficult with qualitative research. Contrasting Exploratory and Confirmatory Research Most exploratory qualitative data. research designs produce Often, exploratory research may be needed to develop the ideas that lead to research hypotheses. In some situations the outcome of exploratory research is a testable research hypothesis. Confirmatory research then tests these hypotheses with quantitative data. The major categories of qualitative research 1. Phenomenology—originating in philosophy and psychology 2. Ethnography—originating in anthropology 3. Grounded theory—originating in sociology 4. Case studies—originating in psychology and in business research 1. Phenomenology (olguculuk) Represents a philosophical approach to studying human experiences based on the idea that human experience itself is inherently(doğal olarak)subjective and determined by the context in which people live. The phenomenological researcher focuses on how a person’s behavior is shaped by the relationship he or she has with the physical environment, objects, people, and situations. When conversational interviews are face to face, they are recorded either with video then interpreted by the researcher. The phenomenological interviewer is careful to avoid asking direct questions when at all possible. Instead, the research respondent is asked to tell a story about some experience. 2. Ethnography Participant observation, a tool of measuring the ethnographic events, means the researcher becomes immersed(bulaşmış) within the culture that he or she is studying and draws data from his or her observations. A culture can be either a broad culture, like Turkish culture, or a narrow culture, like regional culture, Ford owners, or people who are intrested in football. OBSERVATION IN ETHNOGRAPHY Researchers today sometimes ask households for permission to place video cameras in their home. In doing so, the ethnographer can study the individuals in a “natural habitat” and use the observations to test new concept Ethnographic study can be particularly useful when a certain culture is comprised (oluşmak) of individuals who cannot or will not verbalize(sözel)their thoughts and feelings. For instance, discovering insights among children since it does not rely largely on their answers to questions. Instead, allow the children to do what they do naturally, and record their behavior. 3. Grounded Theory (gömülü) Represents an inductive(tümevarımsal) investigation in which the researcher poses questions about information provided by respondents or taken from historical records. The researcher asks the questions to him or herself and repeatedly questions the responses to derive deeper explanations. Grounded theory is particularly applicable in highly dynamic situations involving rapid and significant change. Two key questions asked by the grounded theory researcher are “What is happening here?” and “How is it different?” By questioning the events discussed in the political interviews and analyzing differences in the situations that may have led to the discussion, the researcher is able to develop a theory. Grounded Theory is trying to extract a theory from events or texts Example for diduction(tümdengelim). Every human dies. Ahmet is a human, so Ahmed one day will die. Decreasing the price of any elastic product will increase the demand. If the price of jewelry, luxury cars and hotel services increase the demand of these products will increase. Example for induction(tümevarım). First and Second World War have brought disaster. So all wars bring disaster. Or If we put a piece of ice many times on a fire, the ice will be melted. Therefore the fire melts the ice. Experiment 1 or observation 1 Experiment 2 or observation 2 Experiment 3 or observation 3 Inductive Approach Result, certainty or reality Diductive Approach Conviction 1 Kanaat Conviction 2 Conviction 3 4. Case Studies Case studies simply refer to the documented history of a particular person, group, organization, or event. Typically, a case study may describe the events of a specific political party as it faces an important decision or situation, such as introducing a new campaign. Textbook cases typify this kind of case study. Philosophy and qualitative research Pozitivizm and Emprizm Empiricism A theory of knowledge. A broad category of the philosophy of science that locates the source of all knowledge in experience. Positivism A philosophy of language and logic cosistent with an empiricist philosophy of science. Paradigm A set of assumptions consisting of agreed upon knowledge, criteria of judgement, problem fields, and ways to consider them. Action Research A process whereby one could construct a social experiment with the aim of achieving a certain goal. For example, in the early days of the Second World War, Lewin conducted a study, commissioned by US authorities, on the use of tripe işkembe as part of the regular daily diet of American families. ( ) The research question was: ‘To what extent could American housewives be encouraged to use tripe rather than beef for family dinners?’ Action research is a team research process, facilitated by one or more professional researchers, linking with decision-makers and other stakeholders who together wish to improve particular situations. CLASSIFICATION OF QUALITATIVE TECHNIQUES Qualitative Research Proccedures Direct Focus Groups Indirect Depth Interviews Association Techniques Completion Techniques Projective Techniques Construction Techniques Expressive Techniques Focus Group A focus group interview is an unstructured, free-flowing interview with a small group of people, usually between six and ten. Focus groups are led by a trained moderator who follows a flexible format encouraging dialogue among respondents. Common focus group topics include political issues, international problems. Procedure for Planning and Conducting Focus Groups Advantages and disadvantages of focus groups 1 Synergy. Putting a group of people together will produce a wider range of information, insight and ideas than will individual responses secured privately. 2 Snowballing. A bandwagon effect often operates in a group discussion in that one person’s comment triggers a chain reaction from the other respondents. This process facilitates a very creative process where new ideas can be developed, justified and critically examined. 3 Stimulation. Usually after a brief introductory period, the respondents want to express their ideas and expose their feelings as the general level of excitement over the topic increases in the group. 4 Security. Because the respondents’ feelings may be similar to those of other group members, they feel comfortable and are therefore willing to ‘open up’ and reveal thoughts where they may have been reluctant if they were on their own. 5 Spontaneity(doğallık). Because respondents are not required to answer specific questions, their responses can be spontaneous and unconventional and should therefore provide an accurate idea of their views. 6 Serendipity(tesadüfilik). Ideas are more likely to arise unexpectedly in a group than in an individual interview. There may be issues that the moderator had not thought of. The dynamics of the group can allow these issues to develop and be discussed. Group members, to great effect, may clearly and forcibly ask questions that the moderator may be reluctant to ask. 7 Specialisation. Because a number of respondents are involved simultaneously, the use of a highly trained, but expensive, interviewer is justified. 8 Scientific scrutiny(ayrıntılı inceleme). The group discussion allows close scrutiny of the data collection process in that observers can witness the session and it can be recorded for later analysis. Many individuals can be involved in the validation and interpretation of the collected data. 9 Structure. The group discussion allows for flexibility in the topics covered and the depth with which they are treated. The structure can match the logical structure of issues from the respondents’ perspective as well as the language and expressions they are comfortable with. 10 Speed. Because a number of individuals are being interviewed at the same time, data collection and analysis proceed relatively quickly. The Disadvanges og Focus Groups 1 Misjudgement. Focus group results can be more easily misjudged than the results of other data collection techniques. As a qualitative technique, focus groups can evolve through a line of questioning and probing. The specific direction of questioning and the ultimate interpretation of findings can be susceptible to bias. 2 Moderation. As well as being great fun to moderate, focus groups can be difficult to moderate. Much depends upon the ‘chemistry’ of the group in terms of how group members get on with each other and draw ideas and explanations from each other. Even moderators with many years of experience can get into difficulty with particular group members who disrupt the discussion. The quality of the results depends upon how well the discussion is managed and ultimately on the skills of the moderator. 3 Messiness. The unstructured nature of the responses makes coding, analysis and interpretation difficult in comparison with the structure of quantitative techniques. Focus group data tend to be messy and need either strong theoretical support or the discipline of a grounded theory approach to ensure that decisionmakers can rely upon the analyses and interpretations. 4 Misrepresentation. Focus group results concentrate on distinct target groups, describing them and contrasting them to other groups or types of respondent. Trying to generalise to much wider groups, in the same manner as with a quantitative survey based on a representative sample, can be very misleading. 5 Meeting. There are many problems in getting potential respondents to agree to take part in a focus group discussion. Even when they have agreed to participate, there are problems in getting focus group respondents together at the same time. Running focus groups on the Internet has helped to resolve these problems to some extent, but for some target groups even this does not offer a solution. THE FOCUS GROUP MODERATOR 1. The moderator must be able to develop relation with the group to promote interaction among all participants. 2. The moderator must be a good listener. Without good listening skills, the moderator may direct the group in an unproductive direction VIDEOCONFERENCING AND FOCUS GROUPS With the widespread utilization of videoconferencing, the number of companies using these systems to conduct focus groups has increased. With videoconference focus groups, managers can stay home and watch on television rather than having to take a trip to a focus group facility. Brain Storming Traditional brainstorming has been used for several decades, especially in the context of management or political issues. Whether formal or informal, the process is the same: think of as many ideas as you can and say them out loud; leave the evaluation until later; build on and combine others’ ideas; be as imaginative as possible, the wilder the ideas the better. Qualitative Research Proccedures Direct Focus Groups Indirect Depth Interviews Association Techniques Completion Techniques Projective Techniques Construction Techniques Expressive Techniques Depth interviews Depth interviews are an unstructured and direct way of obtaining information but, unlike focus groups, depth interviews are conducted on a one-on one basis. A depth interview is an unstructured, direct, personal interview in which a single respondent is probed(tahkik, sorgulama)by an experienced interviewer to uncover underlying opinions, motivations, beliefs, attitudes and feelings on a topic. Depth interview is common in the field of international relationship. If this interview is being done with a political leader or with any opposition group leader, the titles, subtitles and the general questions should be well prepared before the interview. The questions and probes they put to respondents should follow the interest and logic of the respondent, making them feel motivated to respond in a manner that suits them. As with a focus group discussion, the respondent should feel comfortable and relaxed. SOCIAL NETWORKING For many consumers, particularly younger generations, social networking sites like MySpace, Second Life, Zebo, and others have become the primary tool for communicating with friends both far and near and known and unknown. Social networking has replaced large volumes of email and, many would say, face–to-face communications as well. Qualitative Research Proccedures Direct Focus Groups Indirect Depth Interviews Association Techniques Completion Techniques Projective Techniques Construction Techniques Expressive Techniques PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES Projective techniques are different from these techniques in that they attempt to totally disguise(gizlemek)the purpose of the research. A projective technique is an unstructured, indirect form of questioning that encourages respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding the issues of concern. In projective techniques, respondents are asked to interpret the behavior of others rather than to describe their own behavior. In interpreting the behavior of others, it is contended (iddia, farz etmek) that respondents indirectly project their own motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings into the situation. The more ambiguous(belirsiz)the situation, the more respondents project their emotions, needs, motives, attitudes and values, as demonstrated by work in clinical psychology. Qualitative Research Proccedures Direct Focus Groups Indirect Depth Interviews Association Techniques Completion Techniques Projective Techniques Construction Techniques Expressive Techniques Association techniques An individual is presented with a stimulus and asked to respond with the first thing that comes to mind. Word association is the best known of these techniques In word association, respondents are presented with a list of words, one at a time, and are asked to respond to each with the first word that comes to mind. A Sample: Dealing with dirt Word association was used to study women’s attitudes towards detergents. Below is a list of stimulus words used and the responses of two women of similar age and household status. The sets of responses are quite different, suggesting that the women differ in personality and in their attitudes towards housekeeping. Ms M’s associations suggest that she is resigned to dirt. She sees dirt as inevitable and does not do much about it. She does not do hard cleaning, nor does she get much pleasure from her family. Ms C sees dirt too, but is energetic, factual-minded and less emotional. She is actively ready to combat(mücadele etmek)dirt, and she uses soap and water as her weapons. Pessimist Fırçalamak Pislik Optimist Kirli Çekişme These findings suggest that the market for detergents could be segmented based on attitudes. Qualitative Research Proccedures Direct Focus Groups Indirect Depth Interviews Association Techniques Completion Techniques Projective Techniques Construction Techniques Expressive Techniques Compilation techniques Respondents are asked to complete an incomplete stimulus situation. Common completion techniques in business research are sentence completion and story completion. 1. Our political relation with neighbor countries should be ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2. In my opinion the future of Middle east will be, ……………………………………………………………………….. 3. Can be said that he economical policy of Turkish government is …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. In story completion, respondents are given part of a story, enough to direct attention to a particular topic but not to hint at the ending. They are required to give the conclusion in their own words Qualitative Research Proccedures Direct Focus Groups Indirect Depth Interviews Association Techniques Completion Techniques Projective Techniques Construction Techniques Expressive Techniques Construction techniques In a construction technique, the researcher provides less initial structure to the respondents than in a completion technique. The two main construction techniques are picture response techniques and cartoon tests. picture response Consists of a series of pictures of ordinary as well as unusual events. In some of these pictures, the persons or objects are clearly definede, while in others they are relatively vague(müphem). The respondent is asked to tell stories about these pictures. The respondent’s interpretation of the pictures gives indications of that individual’s personality. Karıcığım, bugün alışverişimizi Migros’tan yapalım, ne dersin? ................. Qualitative Research Proccedures Direct Focus Groups Indirect Depth Interviews Association Techniques Completion Techniques Projective Techniques Construction Techniques Expressive Techniques Expressive(etkileyici)techniques Respondents are presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation. The respondents express not their own feelings or attitudes, but those of others. The two main expressive techniques are role playing and thirdperson technique. In role playing, respondents are asked to play the role or to assume the behavior of someone else. The researcher assumes that the respondents will project(yansıtmak)their own feelings into the role. ¨Assume that you are the president of X Party, how you will act in facing the political problem?¨ It is time to have fun