Download Economy, Culture, and Politics in the fourth century BCE

February 29th, 2012
ECONOMY, CULTURE, AND POLITICS IN
THE FOURTH CENTURY BCE
GENERAL REMARKS

Fifth century Athenian democracy depended on allied tribute.

Fifth century Athenian democracy depended on naval
supremacy.

Fifth century Athenian democracy dependended on access to
key ports in Chalcidice and the Black Sea.

Fourth century BCE policy (domestic and foreign) must be
understood in terms of the aftermath of the Peloponnesian
War.
DEMOCRACY AND TRIBUTE IN THE FIFTH
CENTURY BCE

“After seeing the state growing in confidence and much wealth accumulated, he
[Aristides] advised the people to lay hold of the leadership of the league, and to quit
the country districts and settle in the city. He pointed out to them that all would be
able to gain a living there, some by service in the army, others in the garrisons,
others by taking part in public affairs; and in this way they would secure the
leadership. This advice was taken; and when the people had assumed supreme
control they proceeded to treat their allies in a more imperious fashion….They also
secured an ample maintenance for the mass of the population in the way which
Aristides had pointed out to them. Out of the proceeds of the tributes and the taxes
and the contributions of the allies more than 20,000 persons were maintained.
There were 6,000 jurymen, 1,600 bowmen, 1,200 knights, 500 members of the
Council, 500 guards of the dockyards, besides 50 guards in the acropolis. There
were some 700 magistrates at home, and some 700 abroad. Further, when they
subsequently went to war, there were in addition 2,500 heavy armed troops, twenty
guard ships, and other ships which collected the tributes, with crews amounting to
2,000 men, selected by lot; and besides these, there were the persons maintained
at the Pryteneum, and orphans and jailers, since all these were supported by the
state.” (?Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 24. D.B. Nagle & S.M. Burstein, 2006)
ECONOMIC AFTERMATH OF THE
PELOPONNESIAN WAR

403-394 BCE - Athens in a state of economic
devastation; Loss of revenue from allies destabilized the
democracy.

Pressure to find a way to pay for restored democracy.

General strategies for revenue: 1. Expand trade. 2.
Domestic economic development. 3. Internal reforms.

Shaky economic recovery after ca. 394 BCE.
ADVANTAGES OF ATHENS FOR ECONOMIC RECOVERY

Bulk of economic activity remains agriculture; Attica possesses large
amounts of arable land; ability to produce surpluses creates opportunity for
trade.

Ideally positioned for recovery of trade.

Well established trade network.

Large population makes it a desirable market.

Good ports (i.e. Peiraieus).

High standard currency accepted in many markets.

More intense development of silver mines in Attica.
XENOPHON ON ATHENIAN TRADE ADVANTAGES

“I shall now explain how the polis is also the pleasantest and
the most profitable as a place of trade. For in the first place,
then, it has the best and the safest anchorages for ships,
where it is possible for people to run into port and remain
without fear in bad weather. But on the other hand also, in
the majority of poleis it is necessary for traders to convey
goods of some kind away, since they have coins which are
useless everywhere; but in Athens more useful things are to
be found to export than anywhere else and if they do not
wish to convey any goods away, even if they export coins,
they will be exporting a marvelous object of trade. For
wherever they dispose of it they everywhere get much more
than their outlay…” (Xenophon, Poroi III.1-2. Crawford &
Whitehead, Doc. 286).
FEEDING THE ATHENIANS

“Indeed all your other benefactors have been useful to us for
a period, but if you look you will see that Leukon helps us
continually, and by supplying a commodity of which our polis
most stands in need. For you are clearly aware that we use
more imported grain than anyone else. Now the grain which
comes in from the Black Sea is equal in amount to the whole
of what arrives from the other emporia. This is not surprising;
for this is the result not only of the fact that this area has the
largest supply of grain, but also of the fact that Leukon is its
ruler and had granted exemption from taxes to those who
convey grain to Athens and proclaims that those sailing to
you load first.” (Demosthenes XX, Against Leptines 30-33.
Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 281A).
FINANCING THE GRAIN TRADE AND OTHER
VENTURES

Large scale shipping requires large scale financing.

System of banking develops rapidly in the Fourth
century BCE.

Private investors lend money to shipping expeditions.

Secured against capital assets (usually land).
A LOAN AGREEMENT FOR A GRAIN DEAL

“Androkles of (the deme) Sphettos and Nausikrates of Karystos lent Artemon and Apollodoros
of Phaselis 3,000 drachmas of silver to go from Athens to Mende or Skione and thence to the
(Crimean) Bosporos, but, if they wish, (only) as far as Borysthenes (Olbia) on the left-hand side
of the Black Sea, and back to Athens at a rate of 225 drachmas per thousand [22.5%!], but if
they set sail from the Black Sea for the Hieron after the heliacal rising of Arcturus at a rate of
300 [30%], on a security of 3000 Mendian amphoras of wine, which will sail from Mende or
Skione on the twenty-oared ship of which Hyblesios is naukleros. And they put this down as
security, not owing any money to anyone else on its security, nor will they make any further
borrowing on its security. And they will convey all goods acquired by way of trade in the Black
Sea back to Athens on the same ship. And if the goods come safe to Athens the borrowers will
repay the lenders the money due under the contract within twenty days after their return to
Athens, in total except insofar as all those on board jointly agree to jettison something or if they
have to hand over anything to an enemy; otherwise they will pay in total. And they will provide
the security to the lenders to hold unencumbered, until they repay the money due under the
contract. And if they do not make repayments within the agreed time, it will be legal for the
lenders to pledge or sell the security for their current value. And if some the money due to the
lenders under the contract is still not recovered, the lenders will be able to claim from Artemon
and Apollodoros, from their entire landed property and from their entire maritime assets,
wherever they may be, as if they were people who had lost a suit and were overdue for
payment; and it will be possible for one or both of the lenders to claim….” (Demosthenes XXXV,
Against Lakritos 10-12. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 281B).
PASION, THE ATHENIAN FINANCIER

A slave owned by bankers Antisthenes and Archestratus.

Ca. 371 BCE - Freed as a reward for services; granted metic
status.

Inherited the banking operations of Antisthenes and
Archestratus; started a shield factory.

Provided numerous public benefactions for the state (i.e.
provided army with shields; constructed triremes etc.).

Granted citizenship
OTHER SOURCES OF REVENUE: THE MINES

482 BCE – Athenians first develop silver mines at Laureion.

Vital source of silver and currency.

Critical for importing vital resources (i.e. grain, timber, pitch etc.).

Key feature in making Peiraieus a main port of trade.

Significant source of public revenue as well as private trade ventures.

More intense development after the est. of the Second Athenian
Confederacy.
A LEASE AGREEMENT FOR MINES IN LAUREION

“In the first prytany, of the phyle Hippothontis,
(the following) mines were leased: Dexiakon in
Nape at Skopia, of which by land the
boundaries are on all sides (the property of)
Nikias of (the deme) Kydantidai, lessee Kallias
of (the deme) Sphettos: 20 drachmas….” (M.
Crosby, Hesperia 10 (1941) 14, no.1. Crawford
& Whitehead, Doc. 277B).
STATE FINANCIAL OBLIGATIONS

Revenue required to fund functions of state.

Payment for service in the courts (Dikasteriai).

Ca – 392 BCE - Payment of service in the ekklesia.

Magistracies and other public posts.

Increasing use of mercenaries requires revenues for defense and security.

Cult festivals.

The fleet.
PAY FOR ATTENDING THE EKKLESIA

“At first the Athenians rejected the idea of payment for
attendance at the ekklesia. However, with poor
attendances, and the prytaneis trying many devices to
make the masses attend and ratify proposals by their
vote, Agyrrios took the first step by instituting (a
payment of) one obol. Subsequently Herakleides of
Klazomenai, the so called ‘king’, (raised it to) two
obols, and then Agyrrios again to three obols.”
(?Aristotle, Athenaion Politeia 41.3. Crawford &
Whitehead, Doc. 302).
OTHER STATE EXPENDITURES

Payment for public duties is as follows: first, the People draw a
drachma for ordinary meetings of the Assembly, and a drachma
and a half for a sovereign meeting; second, the Jury-courts half
a drachma; third, the Council five obols; and those acting as
president have an additional obol for food. Also the Nine
Archons get four obols each for food, and have to keep a herald
and a flute-player as well; and the archon for Salamis gets a
drachma a day. Games-directors dine in the Prytaneum in the
month of Hecatombaeon, during the Panathenaic Festival, from
the fourth of the month onward. Amphictyons for Delos get a
drachma a day from Delos. All the officials sent to Samos,
Scyros, Lemnos or Imbros also get money for food. (?Aristotle,
Athenaion Politeia 41.3. Trans. H. Rackham, 1952)
SOURCES OF REVENUE

Eisphora – Tax on property; levied on property of citizens and free noncitizens; Pop. Divided into 100 groups (symmoriai) of equal taxable value;
system existed in the fifth century but reformed ca. 378 BCE.

Syntaxeis – Contributions from allies (after 378 BCE).

Revenue from silver mine leases.

Dues from the agora and Piraieus.

Theoric fund – Treasury of unused revenue; used for public expenditures;
dividends paid to the demos.

Litourgia – Contributions of the wealthy for public expenses (i.e. Outfitting
ship, repairing a temple etc.).
MANAGING STATE FINANCES

“The officials in charge of the routine administration are all appointed by lot except
for the treasurer of the military fund, the commissioners of the theoric fund and the
superintendant of the water supply; these are elected by a show of hands, and those
elected hold office from one (Great) Panathenaia, elected by show of hands, and
those elected hold office from one (Great) Panathenaia festival to the
next…”(?Aristotle, Atheniaon Politeia 43.1. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 313A)

“Previously, Athenians, the polis used to elect a copy-clerk (antigrapheus) who
reported once every prytany to the demos about the revenues. However, because of
the trust which you came to place in Euboulos, those who had been elected
commissioners of the theoric fund held also – until the nomos of Hegemon came
into being – the offices of the antigrapheus and of the Receivers. In addition they
controlled the dockyards, built a naval arsenal, and were surveyors of roads; in fact
virtually the whole administration of the polis was in their hands.” (Aeschines III,
Against Ktesiphon, 25. Crawford & Whitead, Doc. 313B)
COMPLAINTS ABOUT LITURGIES:
ISOCRATES 8.128

“For some are driven to rehearse and bewail
amongst themselves their poverty and privation
while others deplore the multitude of duties
enjoined upon them by the state—the liturgies
and all the nuisances connected with the
symmories and with exchanges of property; for
these are so annoying that those who have
means find life more burdensome than those
who are continually in want.”(Trans. G. Norlin,
1980)
THE STATE OF DEMOCRACY IN FOURTH CENTURY
ATHENS

Machinery of 5th century democracy continues (restored in 403 BCE) into
the 4th century BCE; Refined, more sophisticated, more regulated.

Distinction made between nomos (laws) and psephismata (decrees).

Nomothetai (drafters of laws) increasingly subject to nomothesia (drafting
procedures).

Agenda of the ekklesia increasingly regularized.

Graphe Paranomon (lawsuits against those who proposed laws contrary to
the established nomoi) increasingly routine.

No doubt aimed at curbing the volatility of participatory democracy.
A SCRUTINY OF THE NOMOI

“After your return from Peiraieus you decided to forgo revenge and let
bygones be bygones; you set more store by the safety of the polis than by
the righting of private wrongs, so you resolved that both sides should
observe an amnesty in respect of what had happened. And in accordance
with this resolve you elected twenty men to take charge of the polis until the
nomoi had been laid down – the nomoi of Solon and the statutes of Drakon
to be in force meanwhile. However, after you had appointed a boule by lot
and elected nomothetai you began to discover that there were many of the
nomoi, both those of Solon and those of Drakon, under which, because of
earlier events, large numbers of the politai were liable for prosecution. You
therefore called a meeting of the ekklesia to discuss these matters, and
voted that all the nomoi should be scrutinised, and the ones which passed
this scrutiny then inscribed in the stoa (basileos). Read out the psephisma
for me….” (Andocides I, On the Mysteries 81-82. Crawford & Whitehead,
Doc. 307)
CREATING A REGULAR LEGISLATIVE AGENDA

“The prytaneis also give written notice of meetings of the ekklesia. One meeting in
each prytany is plenary (kuria), at which there must be a vote on whether the
officials appear to be doing their duties well, and discussions about (the supply of)
grain and about the defence of the chora. This is the day also when those who wish
to do so initiate impeachments (eisengeliai) and when public announcement is
made of the inventories of confiscated property and also of claims to inherit
properties and (to marry) heiresses – this so that nobody may be in ignorance of any
vacant estates. Also, in the sixth prytany (only), in addition to the matters mentioned
they take a vote on the question of whether or not to hold an ostrakismos; and they
hear complaints against (probolai) informers – whether Athenians or metoikoi, and
up to three of each – and against anyone who has failed to fulfil a promise to the
demos. The second meeting (in each prytany) deal with other matters, though the
nomoi prescribe that these must include three discussions of sacred matters, three
connected with heralds and embassies, and three concerning secular matters.”
(?Aristotle, Athenaion Politeia 43.4-6. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 308).
AESCHINES COMPLAINS ABOUT THE
RESTRAINING OF GRAPHE PARANOMON

“I myself have heard from my own father – a man who died at the age of 95, having shared
with the polis in every one of its toils, which often in his leisure hours he used to recount me –
that in the early days of the restored democracy one only had to mention ‘graphe paranomon’
to a dikasterion for a conviction to be as good as secured. What, after all, is more wicked than
a man whose words and actions are unlawful? And the hearings too, he used to say, were not
of the same kind as nowadays: the jurors were far more severe even than the prosecutor
himself upon the proposers of illegal measures, and they often used to call the clerk back and
have him read out the (relevant) nomoi and the (offending) psephisma a second time. Also the
proposers of illegal measures used to be convicted if they contravened so much as a single
syllable of the nomoi; they did not need to transgress the entire statute-book! But the
procedure as it is conducted these days is utterly ridiculous: the clerks read out a statement of
the illegality as charged and the jurors’ minds wander on to some other matter, just as if they
were listening to an incantation, or something in which they had no involvement. And already,
thanks to the tricks of Demosthenes, you have accepted a shameful custom in the dikasteria. I
refer to your allowing the legal procedures of the polis to become perverted: the accuser is on
the defensive, the defendant fills the role of the accuser, and as for the jurors, they sometimes
forget what they are there to judge and are obliged to vote on matters which were never theirs
to decide.” (Aeschines III, Against Ktesiphon, 191-193. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 310)
EDUCATION, PHILOSOPHY, AND POLITICS

Education intimately connected to power; form of education tailored to the
demands of power.

Rhetoric and (political) ethics critical feature of education in democratic
Athens.

Sound rhetorical processes believed to est. “truth”; Sophists.

The orators become particularly important public figures.

A double-edged sword; opponents of democracy used rhetorical skills to
undermine democracy (i.e. Socrates).
THREE GREAT ORATORS OF 4TH CENTURY ATHENS

Isocrates (ca. 436-338 BCE) – Began his political career as a logographer (i.e. a writer of
political and lawcourt speeches); Est. his own school of rhetoric (392 BCE); many political
speeches lamented the broken state of Greece; advocated Greek unity and war with Persia
under joint Athenian and Spartan hegemony; Later pinned his hopes on Philip II of Macedon as
hegemon v. Persia and the unifier of Greece.

Demosthenes (384-322 BCE) – Born to a wealthy family (father was an arms maker); raised by
his mother and extended family; studied rhetoric in the school of Isocrates; pleaded frequently
in lawcourts; outspoken proponent of Athenian autonomy and critic of hegemonic policy of
Philip II of Macedon (i.e. the Philippics); attempted a Pan-Hellenic revolt against Macedon upon
the death of Alexander (323 BCE); Athens crushed (322 BCE); Demosthenes put on trial;
committed suicide.

Aeschines (Ca. 390-315 BCE) – Politician and orator; political opponent of Demosthenes;
believed in peaceful co-existence with Macedon; Increasingly unpopular when Macedonian
designs on Greece became known; Demosthenes succeeded in stirring up anti-Macedonian
sentiment; Aeschines exiled (330 BCE); Est. a school of rhetoric in Asia Minor; Wrote “show”
orations b/c of changed political landscape in the Hellenistic period..
THE CRITICS OF DEMOCRACY

Fourth century Athens contained many critics of democracy.

Criticism stiffened with the execution of Socrates (399 BCE).

Many educated aristocrats and oligarchs coalesced around
Plato and his Academy (ca. 385 BCE).

Plato’s ideals decidedly anti-democratic; advocated
government by the wisest and best (i.e. The Republic).

Withdrawal from public life increasingly common feature of
philosophy; prefigures developments in Hellenistic political and
philosophical speculation.
Reasons For the Failure of Socrates’ Defense

Socrates’ Arrogance

Socrates’ Obstinacy

Socrates’ Anti-Democratic Ideology (i.e. his
pupils)

Socrates’ embarrassment of public figures
Slapping the Demos in the Face
Plato, Apology 31c-e, G.M.A. Grube, 2000

“It may seem strange that while I go around and give this advice privately
and interfere in private affairs, I do not venture to go to the assembly and
there advise the city. You have heard me give the reason for this in many
places. I have a divine or spiritual sign which Meletus has ridiculed in his
deposition. This began when I was a child. It is a voice and whenever it
speaks it turns me away from something I am about to do, but it never
encourages me to do anything. This is what has prevented me from taking
part in public affairs, and I think it was quite right to prevent me. Be sure,
men of Athens, that if I had long ago attempted to take part in politics, I
should have died long ago, and benefited neither you nor myself. Do not be
angry with me for speaking the truth; no man will survive who genuinely
opposes you or any other crowd and prevents the occurrence of many
unjust and illegal happenings in the city. A man who really fights for justice
must lead a private, not a public, life if he is to survive even a short time.”
PLATO’S BACKGROUND AND PHILOSOPHY

Student of Socrates

Attempted to solve Socratic questions about universal truths
(i.e. Justice, Virtue etc.) through his Theory of Forms

Humanity mired in their inability to perceive the true forms of
universal abstract human values.

Philosophy entails training the mind (and purging the body) of
the philosopher to apprehend universal truths.

Advocated government by the wise (i.e. the Republic).
PLATO ON DIFFERENT LEVELS OF REALITY
PLATO, REPUBLIC 7.514 FF



Socrates: “And now, let me show in a parable how far our nature may be
enlightened or unenlightened: Behold! Human beings living in a an
underground den; here they have been from their childhood, and have their
legs and their necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see
before them, being prevented by the chains from turning round their heads.
Above and behind them is a fire at a distance, and between the fire and the
prisoners is a raised way; and you will see, if you look, a low wall built along
the way, like the screen which marionette players have in front of them, over
which they show the puppets. And do you see men passing along the wall
carrying all sorts of vessels, and statues, and figures of animals made of
wood and stone and various materials, which appear over the wall? Some of
them are talking, others are silent.”
Glaucon: “You have shown me a strange image, and they are strange
prisoners.”
Socrates: “Like ourselves, and they see only their own shadows, or the
shadows of one another, which the fire throws on the opposite wall of the
cave.”….To them the truth would be literally nothing but the shadows of the
images.” (Lim & Bailkey, 2002)
POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS OF PLATO’S
PHILOSOPHY

The best form of government is that by those who apprehend
virtue, justice etc. in its true universal form.

Only philosophers possess this skill.

The well-born generally in the best position to acquire these
skills.

The common people far too stupid and mired in the changing
world around them to rule themselves; they cannot practice
philosophy.
Plato on the Philosophic Life

“In the present life, I reckon that we make the nearest approach to knowledge when
we have the least possible intercourse or communion with the body, and are not
contaminated with the bodily nature, but keep ourselves pure until the hour when
God himself is pleased to release us. And so having got rid of the foolishness of the
body we shall be pure and hold converse with the pure, and know of ourselves the
clear light everywhere, which is no other than the light of truth. If this be true, there
is great reason to hope that when I come to the end of my journey, I shall obtain that
which has been the pursuit of my life. So I go on my way rejoicing….When the soul
uses the body as an instrument of perception, that is to say, when it uses the sense
of sight or hearing or some other sense, she is dragged by the body into the region
of the changeable, and wanders and is confused; the world spins round her, and she
is like a drunkard, when she touches change. But when she contemplates in herself
and by herself, then she passes into the other world, the region of purity, and
eternity, and immortality and unchangeableness, which are her kindred, and with
them she ever lives, when she is by herself and is not let or hindered; and then she
ceases from her erring ways, and being in communion with the unchanging is
unchanging. And this state of the soul is called wisdom.” (Plato, Phaedo; Adapted
from N. Bailkey & R. Lim, 2002: pp. 224-225)
Is Plato advocating that the wise man must withdraw
from public life? If so, why is he saying this?