Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Section 2.1 1. Atom: the smallest unit of matter. Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons. 2. Element: One type of atom. It CAN NOT be broken down into a simpler substance. It is a group of atoms of the same type. What makes one element different from another element? It’s # of proton’s! 3. Compound: Is a substance made of atoms of different elements bonded together in a certain ratio. Example: H20 Atomic Model Proton: a very small particle of matter that is part of the nucleus of an atom and that has a positive electrical charge Neutron: a very small particle of matter that has no electrical charge and is part of the nucleus of all atoms except hydrogen atoms Electron: a very small particle of matter that has a negative charge of electricity and that travels around the nucleus of an atom Isotopes: atoms of the same element with different # of neutrons. Your # of protons & electrons in an atom are equal 6 6 C 12 C 13 Bohr’s Atomic Model Page 35 in textbook First Shell holds 2 Electrons Second Shell holds 8 Electrons Third Shell holds 8 Electrons Fourth Shell holds 18 Electrons Fifth Shell holds 18 electrons Six Shell holds 32 Electrons 10 Ne 20 # of total electrons Scientist Bohr: depicts the atom as a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around the nucleus View Atomic Model Atomic # Equals # of protons With a partner (using a laptop) Create atoms for 10 elements Atomic Mass: Equals # of protons plus number of neutrons 17 Cl Chlorine 35.45 When creating atoms: 1. Look at the atomic # - that will tell you how many protons you have 2. Look at the atomic mass, Subtract the Atomic # from the Atomic Mass and that will tell you how many neutrons you have! 3. You have the same # of electrons as protons. You just need to correctly fill each shell! If you forget how many electrons are in each shell, reference your periodic table! Section 2.1 4. Ion: Is an atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons in it’s outer valence shell. 5. Ionic Bond: A bond where you lose or gain an electron. (Ionic Bond View with Covalent Bond animation) 6. Covalent Bond: A bond where atoms share a pair of electrons Covalent Bond Covalent Bond 7. Molecule: Two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds. Example: Co2 Carbon and Oxygen SHARE the electrons in the outer shell. Section 2.1 11 Na 22 NA 17 Cl # of electrons Cl Mass of Na is 22g, loses a electron so now more positive. Cl gains an electron so becomes more negative! **Remember electrons have a negative charge** Take out your Periodic table: Label Section 2.1 Take out your Periodic table: Complete the following Chemistry Worksheet First, write the COMPOUND product you would receive when combining the two elements. Second, draw the Lewis dot representation of the ionic bonding that is occurring. ** Remember Ionic bonding means you gain or lose an electron.** Example: One Carbon plus one Hydrogen equals Carbon- 4 e outer shell, and 2 in inner shell 6 1 C H H C-4 H+1 = CH 4 Every bond/line equals 2 electrons H C H H H H C H H Section 2.3 Organic Chemistry All about the Element Carbon Carbon atoms have four electrons in their outer shells, and all four are available for bonding. Carbon can share these electrons in single bonds with up to four other atoms to form very stable structures. C Carbon can form multiple bonds with up to two other atoms by sharing two or more electrons with another atom; forming double bonds or even triple bonds! Carbons ability to form four bonds in a single plane makes it uniquely suited to form macromolecules. 1 line equals 2 electrons Carbon can also readily form bonds with other carbon atoms to form long, complex molecules. When chemists refer to organic molecules, they generally use structural formulas. A diagram of the molecule is often more helpful than the name. Because of the high percentage of carbon and hydrogen in organic molecules, the molecules are drawn without labeling them. Carbon atoms are located where lines intersect, unless otherwise noted, and the 4 bonds around each carbon are understood to be completed by the appropriate number of hydrogens. Below are examples of some common carbon-containing compounds. Section 2.3 Biological Molecules Biological molecules are composed of small repeating subunits that bond together to form larger units. The subunits, or building blocks, are called monomers. Polymers are the complex molecules formed from the repeating subunits. There are four basic classes of complex organic molecules, or macromolecules, that compose cells: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids Section 2.3 Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are organic macromolecules that are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. These atoms are combined in a ratio of: 1 carbon atom : 2 hydrogen atoms : 1 oxygen atom The presence of multiple carbon-hydrogen bonds within carbohydrates makes them an excellent source of energy Carbohydrates may be simple or complex. The building blocks of carbohydrates are the simple sugars known as monosaccharides. Sugars such as glucose, fructose, and ribose are all examples of monosaccharides. Monosaccharides can be combined to form more complex carbohydrates known as polysaccharides. Glycogen, starch, and cellulose are all examples of polysaccharides. Glucose Starch Section 2.3 Lipids Lipids are organic macromolecules that are insoluble in water. This is why lipids are often found in biological membranes and other waterproof coverings (e.g. plasma membrane, intracellular membranes of organelles). These lipids play a vital role in regulating which substances can or cannot enter the cell. The most important lipids, however, are fats. Triglycerides are a type of fat that contain one glycerol molecule and three fatty acids. Section 2.3 Lipids Fatty acids are long chains of CH2 units joined together. The fatty acids in saturated fats do not contain any double bonds between the CH2 units whereas the fatty acids in unsaturated fats contain some carbon-carbon double bonds. Saturated fats are found in butter, cheese, chocolate, beef, and coconut oil. Unsaturated fats are found in olives and olive oil, peanuts and peanut oil, fish, and mayonnaise. Fats are important because they are a major source of energy. Since they contain even more carbon-hydrogen bonds than carbohydrates, fatty tissue has the ability to store energy for extended periods of time Unsaturated means containing a carbon double or triple bond. Section 2.3 Proteins Proteins are organic macromolecules that are composed of amino acid monomers. There are 20 essential amino acids that are used by all living things to construct proteins. These amino acids are made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Some of the amino acids also contain sulfur. Three of the amino acids are shown below. There are three main components of an amino acid, shown to the left. Proteins differ from each other due to the number and arrangement of their component amino acids. Proteins also take on unique shapes as determined by their amino acid sequences. Proteins are different then Carbohydrates because they can catalyze biochemical reactions. (Enzymes are proteins) Section 2.3 Carbohydrates vs. Proteins • Proteins are made up of the elements C,H,O, and N while Carbohydrates only contain C,H, and O (elemental ratio of these three is 1:2:1) Carbohydrate Protein Carbohydrates vs. Proteins Functions • Carbohydrates are our essential energy molecules to be use almost immediately (simple sugars like glucose) or stored in the liver as glycogen. • Proteins are building and regulatory compounds (such as hormones and enzymes). Muscles and cell membranes contain proteins (why weight lifters eat a lot of protein) Section 2.3 Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids are formed from nucleotide monomers. Nucleotides are chemical compounds that are primarily comprised of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. They consist of a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogenous base, and one or more phosphate groups. There are two main types of nucleic acids - ribonucleic acids (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA). These nucleic acids are different because their fivecarbon sugars are different. RNA contains ribose, and DNA contains deoxyribose. There are five nitrogenous bases found in nucleic acids. Adenine (A), cytosine (C), and guanine (G) are found in both DNA and RNA. Thymine (T) is only found in DNA, and uracil (U) is only found in RNA. Section 2.3 1. Monomer: molecular subunit of a polymer 2. Polymer: large carbon based molecule formed by monomers. 3. Carbohydrate: molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; including sugars and starches. 4. Lipid: nonpolar molecular composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; includes fats and oils. Section 2.3 1. Fatty Acid: hydrocarbon chain often bonded to glycerol in a lipid. A triglyceride is three fatty acids and a glycerol. The red portion of the diagram is one glycerol. Each black chain is a fatty acid. 1. Protein: polymer composed of amino acids linked to peptide bonds, Any of a group of complex organic macromolecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and usually sulfur and are composed of one or more chains of amino acids 2. Amino Acid: Molecule that makes up proteins; composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur, building blocks of proteins. 3. Nucleic Acid: polymer of nucleotides; the genetic material of organisms, carries genetic information directing all cellular functions DNA. Dalton’s Atomic Theory The main points of Dalton's atomic theory were: • Elements are made of extremely small particles called atoms. • Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties; atoms of different elements differ in size, mass, and other properties. • Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed. • Atoms of different elements combine in simple wholenumber ratios to form chemical compounds. • In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged. Dalton’s Atomic Theory Law of Conservation of Mass: No detectable gain or loss of mass occurs in chemical reactions. Mass is conserved. This is why all chemical reactions are balanced on both sides Example: 2C4H10 + 13O2 8CO2 + 10H2O C= 8 C=8 H=10 H=10 O=26 O=26 Law of Definite Proportions: In a given chemical compound, the elements are always combined in the same proportions by mass. Example: H2O always 2 H’s to every 1 O How many atoms of each element are in the formulas? C-4 H+1 = CH4 1. Al2 (SO4)3 Al=2 S= 3 O=12 2. CoCl3 ·6H2O Co= 1 H=12 Chemical Equation Zn + S ZnS ReactantsProduct ** No gain or loss of mass occurs in chemical reactions** ** Manipulate Coefficients to make an equation conform to the law of conservation of mass** Example: 2 Mg (OH)2 + 2HCL MgCL2 __H2O Mg=1 H=4 Mg=1 Cl=2 Cl=2 Need 2 H and a O O=2 H=2 O=1 Section 2.2 Periodic Table 1. Hydrogen Bond: a weak chemical bond between an electronegative atom, such as fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, and a hydrogen atom bound to another electronegative atom. 2. Cohesion: is the property of like molecules (of the same substance) to stick to each other due to mutual attraction. Ex: H2O molecules sticking together 3. Adhesion: is the property of different molecules or surfaces to cling to each other. Example: H2O in a tube creating a meniscus 4.Solution: A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances Section 2.2 1. Solvent: the liquid in which a solute is dissolved to form a solution. 2. Solute: the substance dissolved in a given solution 3. Acid: Substance that donates hydrogen ions. Has a pH of less than 7. 4. Base: A substance that accepts hydrogen ions, has a ph between 7 and 14. 5. PH: How Acidity and alkalinity are measured. Section 2.4 1. Chemical Reaction: a process that involves changes in the structure and energy content of atoms, molecules, or ions. 2. Reactant: The substance that is present at the start of the reaction. Also is the substance that is changed during the chemical reaction. 3. Product: A substance resulting from a chemical reaction. 4. Bond Energy: measure of strength in a chemical bond. The amount of energy it will take to break a bond between two atoms. Page 51 in textbook Section 2.4 1. Equilibrium: when both the reactants and products are made at the same rate. 2. Activation Energy: Is the amount of energy that needs to be absorbed for a chemical reaction to start. Releases energy! Add H2O reaction occurs Energy is transferred through heat and light 1. Exothermic: Chemical reaction releases more energy than it absorbs. If the products have a lower bond energy than the reactants, the reaction is exothermic. 2.Endothermic: Chemical Reaction absorbs more energy than it releases. If products have a higher bond energy than reactants, the reaction is endothermic. When trying to classify a process as exothermic or endothermic, watch how the temperature of the surroundings changes. An exothermic process releases heat, and causes the temperature of the immediate surroundings to rise. An endothermic process absorbs heat and cools the surroundings. Examples: Exothermic- Making ice cubes Endothermic-melting ice cubes Section 2.5 1. Catalyst: substance that causes or accelerates a chemical reaction without itself being affected. 2. Enzyme: a substance produced by a living organism that acts as catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction. 3. Substrate: Is the material on which an enzyme acts on. It is the reactant that binds to the catalyst. ALL MADE OF ATOMS _______________________ MATTER •The smallest basic unit of _______________ •Consist of three types of smaller particles: Positive Charge PROTONS •________________________________________ NEUTRONS No Charge •________________________________________ ELECTRONS Negative Charge •_________________________________________ ELECTRONS PROTONS ________________ ________________ NEUTRONS _________________ ATOM •One type of _______________ •Cannot be _________ BROKEN _______ DOWN into a simpler substance. •Examples: Gases HYDROGEN ________________ Metals ALUMINUM ________________ OXYGEN ________________ GOLD ________________ What makes one element different from another? The number of PROTONS ________________________ •A SUBSTANCE MADE OF ATOMS(OR ______________) ELEMENTS THAT ARE _____________ TOGETHER IN A CERTAIN BONDED RATIO. •EXAMPLES WATER ( H2O ) ________________ CARBON DIOXIDE ( CO2 ) _______________________ GAINED OR ___________ LOST • AN ATOM THAT HAS ___________ ONE OR MORE ELECTRONS. •ATOMS BECOME IONS WHEN THEIR NUMBER OF ELECTRONS IS CHANGED ______________________________________________ LOSE •POSITIVELY CHARGED IONS – ________ ELECTRONS GAIN ELECTRONS •NEGATIVELY CHARGED IONS – _______ •IONS FORM BECAUSE ATOMS ARE MORE STABLE WHEN OUTERMOST ENERGY LEVEL IS _______. FULL THEIR _____________ POSITIVELY CHARGED •________________________ IONS ARE ATTRACTED TO NEGATIVELY CHARGED _________________________ IONS The sodium atom loses its one outer electron to the chlorine atom. Na loses an electron to Cl The positive sodium ion and negative chloride ion attract each other and form an ionic bond. Gained electron Ionic bond Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl) IONIC BONDS ___________________________: OPPOSITELY CHARGED IONS. Sodium atom Chlorine atom (Na+) (Cl-) ELECTRICAL FORCE BETWEEN FORM THROUGH THE ____________________________ COVALENT _______. BONDS •Two or more atoms held together by __________ ELEMENT •Smallest part of a ____________________. •Almost all substances that make up organisms, LIPIDS, NUCLEIC ACIDS, WATER (____________________________________________) are molecules held together by covalent bonds. covalent bonds CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2): Oxygen: _____Protons, 8 ___ 8 Neutrons _____Electrons (6 outer/2 inner) 8 6 C 6 6 Neutrons 12 _____Protons, ___ _____Electrons (4 outer/2 inner) 6 Carbon: Oxygen Atom (O) Carbon Atom (C) Oxygen Atom (O) COMPOUND: WATER = H2O = OXYGEN = HYDROGEN 7 MOLECULES OF H2O = ______ Practice: How many water molecules will be created as a result of covalent bonds? = OXYGEN = HYDROGEN “EXTRA” ELEMENTS TOTAL MOLECULES OF WATER OXYGEN 7 ___________ 2 ___________ HYDROGEN 1 ___________ More Practice: How many water molecules will be created as a result of covalent bonds? = OXYGEN = HYDROGEN “EXTRA” ELEMENTS TOTAL MOLECULES OF WATER OXYGEN 11 ___________ 0 ___________ HYDROGEN 4 ___________ 1. Matter: Anything that has mass and takes up space. Made up of atoms. 2. Atoms: Make up elements 3. Elements: Substances that are made up of only one kind of atom oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen 4. Compound: Substances that are made up of two or more elements Water, (H2O) , Carbon Dioxide, (CO2) 5. Molecule: The smallest part of a compound You must have 2 hydrogen molecules and 1 oxygen to have WATER. __________________________________________ OXYGEN, (O) ____________ ____________ CARBON, (C) ____________(H) HYDROGEN, ____________ NITROGEN, (N) ____________ CALCIUM, (Ca) ____________(P) PHOSPHORUS, _OTHER_____ ____________ SULFUR, (S) CELLS •Organisms’ bodies, (their _____________), WATER are made up of mostly ____________________ STRUCTURE •The water in cells gives the cell _______________ TRANSPORTS and ___________________ materials within organisms. •All of the processes necessary for an organism’s life take place within the WATERY ENVIRONMENT of the cell ______________________________ ______________________ 1. HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT ______________________ 2. COHESION ______________________ 3. ADHESION Negative Charge POLAR •Water is a “______________” molecule •Form when atoms in a molecule UNEQUAL pulls on the have ____________ ELECTRONS _____________ they share. Positive Charge •Opposite charges of polar molecules can HYDROGEN interact to form ____________________ bonds. •An attraction between a slightly POSITIVE _______________ hydrogen atom and a slightly ______________ NEGATIVE atom. (Usually _______________________________) OXYGEN OR NITROGEN •Hydrogen bonds are part of the PROTEINS structures of _______________ and of ______________ DNA Positive Charge Shared Electrons HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT • Hydrogen bonds give water an abnormally ____________________________. RESISTS •Water __________________ changes in temperature because it must _____________ ____________________ to increase in temperature. absorb more more heat energy Cohesion: the attraction among __________________ of the same MOLECULES substance. Cohesion from hydrogen bonds makes water molecules _____________________. STICK TOGETHER Cohesion produces __________________, SURFACE TENSION ( “skin on water” ) Adhesion: the attraction among __________________ MOLECULES of ______________ DIFFERENT substances. For example, water molecules stick to other things. Water in a test tube, (water is attracted to the ____________) GLASS Materials such as SUGARS ________________ and ____________ cannot be OXYGEN transported form one part of an organism to another unless they are dissolved in blood, plant sap, or other water based fluids. SOLUTION ______________: Mixture of a substance that is the same throughout. SOLVENT ___________: Substance that is present in the greater amount and dissolves another substance. SOLUTE ___________: Substance that dissolves in a solvent. ACIDS BASES Some compounds form ______________ or _____________ BREAK UP IONS because they _______________ into _______________ WATER when they dissolve in ___________. BASE: ACID: Compounds that release a proton - a hydrogen ion(H+) – when it dissolves in water Compounds that remove H+ ions from a solution PROTEIN ____________________ LIPIDS ____________________ CARBOHYDRATES ____________________ ATP ____________________ NUCLEIC ACID ____________________ •USED BY CELLS FOR __________ ENERGY ___________ SOURCE AND __________ ENERGY____________. STORAGE SIMPLE CARBS = _______________________________ ONE OR TWO SUGAR MOLECULES COMPLEX CARBS =LONG _____________________________ CHAINS OF SUGAR MOLECULES _____________________________ Ex) Starches such as potato, ________________________________ pasta, bread ________________________________ CELLS •MAKE UP _________________. LIFE PROCESSES •INVOLVED IN ALL _______ ____________. AMINO ACIDS •BUILDING BLOCKS = _________ __________. ENZYME •_________________= TYPE OF PROTEIN THAT STARTS AND SPEEDS UP CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN CELLS. WATER •DON’T MIX WITH ______________. CELL MEMBRANE •PHOSPHOLIPIDS – MAKE UP ________ ______________. STORE___________. ENERGY •FATS AND OILS THAT _________ •ORGANISMS USE FATS AND OILS WHEN THEY HAVE CARBOHYDRATES USED UP ___________________. FATS •_________SOLID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE. OILS •_________LIQUID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE. ENERGY CARRYING •MAJOR ___________ ___________ MOLECULE IN CELL. CARBOHYDRATES AND __________ LIPIDS •ENERGY IN __________________ AND PROTEINS _____________________ MUST BE TRANSFERRED TO ATP IN CELL TO BE USED. PROTEIN •HAVE ALL INFO NEEDED TO MAKE __________. BLUE PRINT •“_______________” OF LIFE. •BUILDING BLOCKS OF NUCLEOTIDES _____________. DNA RNA •TWO TYPES: ________ AND _______. COMPOUND BUILDING BLOCK (POLYMER) (MONOMER) PROTEIN AMINO ACID LIPID (FAT) FATTY ACID CARBOHYDRATE SUGARS NUCLEIC ACIDS NUCLEOTIDE