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1 Lecture 13 Outline (Ch. 48) I. Animal Nutrition Overview II. Essential Parts of Animal Diet III. Food Intake IV. Digestive Compartments V. Adaptations VI. Obesity 2 Overview: The Need to Feed • Food is taken in, taken apart, and taken up in the process of animal nutrition • In general, animals fall into three categories: – Herbivores eat mainly autotrophs (plants, algae) – Carnivores eat other animals – Omnivores regularly consume animals as well as plants or algal matter 3 Essential Parts of Diet • Chemical energy, which is converted into ATP and powers processes in the body • Organic carbon and organic nitrogen • Essential nutrients must be obtained from dietary sources –Essential amino acids –Essential fatty acids –Vitamins –Minerals 4 Essential Parts of Diet • Meat, eggs, cheese - provide all nine essential amino acids ( “complete” proteins) • Individuals eating only plant proteins need specific plant combinations for all essential amino acids Essential amino acids for adults Methionine Valine Beans and other legumes Threonine Phenylalanine Leucine Corn (maize) and other grains Isoleucine Tryptophan Lysine 5 Essential Parts of Diet • Animals can synthesize most fatty acids they need • The essential fatty acids are certain unsaturated fatty acids that must be obtained from the diet • Vitamins: organic molecules needed in small amounts • 13 essential vitamins for humans • Fat-soluble & water-soluble Vitamin A B-complex Vitamin D Biotin Vitamin E Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) Vitamin K 6 Minerals • Minerals: inorganic nutrients, small amounts needed Calcium Phosphorus Potassium Sulfur Chlorine Sodium Magnesium Iron A diet missing a certain essential part or not enough calories overall leads to malnourishment or undernourishment 7 Food Intake Ingestion: the act of eating • Suspension feeders - many aquatic animals, which sift small food particles from the water • Substrate feeders are animals that live in or on their food source • Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host • Bulk feeders eat relatively large pieces of food 8 Leaf miner caterpillar, substrate feeder Baleen Humpback whale, a suspension feeder Caterpillar Mosquito, a fluid feeder Feces 9 Rock python, a bulk feeder Food Intake • Digestion is the process of breaking food down into molecules small enough to absorb – In chemical digestion, the process of enzymatic hydrolysis splits bonds in molecules with the addition of water • Absorption is uptake of nutrients by body cells • Elimination is the passage of undigested material out of the digestive compartment10 Food Intake Small molecules Pieces of food Mechanical digestion Chemical digestion Nutrient (enzymatic hydrolysis) molecules enter body cells Undigested material Food 1 Ingestion 2 Digestion 3 Absorption 4 Elimination 11 Digestive Compartments • Most animals process food in specialized compartments • Reduces risk animal digesting its own cells/ Tentacles tissues Food Mouth Gastrovascular cavity Epidermis 12 Gastrodermis Digestive Compartments Crop Gizzard Intestine Esophagus Pharynx Anus Mouth • More complex animals: digestive tube with two openings (mouth, anus) • Tube called a complete digestive tract or an alimentary canal • Can have specialized regions, carry out digestion and absorption stepwise Typhlosole Lumen of intestine (a) Earthworm Foregut Midgut Hindgut Rectum Anus Esophagus Crop Mouth Gastric cecae (b) Grasshopper Stomach Gizzard Intestine Mouth Esophagus Crop Anus 13 (c) Bird Digestive Compartments Tongue Sphincter Salivary glands Oral cavity Salivary glands Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Esophagus Sphincter Liver Stomach Ascending portion of large intestine Gallbladder Gallbladder Duodenum of small intestine Pancreas Liver Small intestine Small intestine Pancreas Large intestine Anus Cecum Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Anus Rectum Appendix Stomach A schematic diagram of the human digestive system • Mammalian alimentary canal and accessory glands that secrete digestive juices through ducts 14 Oral Cavity, Pharynx, Esophagus Food Epiglottis up Tongue Epiglottis up Pharynx Esophageal sphincter contracted Glottis Larynx Trachea Epiglottis down Esophagus To To lungs stomach • Food shaped into a bolus, lubricated by saliva, digestion begins with amylase. • Pharynx, a junction that opens to both the esophagus and the trachea (windpipe) Glottis up and closed Glottis down and open Esophageal sphincter relaxed • The esophagus conducts food from the pharynx down to the stomach by peristalsis • Epiglottis blocks entry to the trachea, and larynx. Esophageal sphincter contracted Relaxed muscles Relaxed muscles Contracted muscles Sphincter relaxed Stomach 15 Digestion in the Stomach • The stomach stores food and secretes gastric juice, which converts a meal to acid chyme Esophagus 5 µm • Gastric juice hydrochloric acid (parietal cells) and the enzyme pepsin (chief cells) Interior surface • Mucus protects of stomach the stomach Gastric gland lining from gastric juice Mucus cells Sphincter Stomach Sphincter Small intestine Folds of epithelial tissue Epithelium 3 Pepsinogen 2 HCl Pepsin 1 Cl– H+ Chief cells Chief cell Parietal cells 16 Parietal cell Digestion in the Small Intestine • The small intestine: longest section of alimentary canal • Major organ of digestion and absorption • First is the duodenum - acid chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and the small intestine itself. pancreas proteases trypsin & chymotrypsin amylase & lipase neutralizes the acidic chyme liver/gallbladder bile aids digestion and absorption of fats small intestine lining of duodenum (brush border) produces several digestive enzymes jejunum and ileum mainly absorb water 17 & nutrients Digestion in the Small Intestine 18 Carbohydrate digestion Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus Polysaccharides Disaccharides (starch, glycogen) (sucrose, lactose) Protein digestion Nucleic acid digestion Fat digestion Salivary amylase Smaller polysaccharides, maltose Stomach Proteins Pepsin Small polypeptides Lumen of small intestine Polysaccharides Pancreatic amylases Polypeptides Pancreatic trypsin and chymotrypsin DNA, RNA Fat globules Pancreatic nucleases Bile salts Maltose and other disaccharides Nucleotides Fat droplets Smaller polypeptides Pancreatic lipase Pancreatic carboxypeptidase Glycerol, fatty acids, monoglycerides Amino acids Epithelium of small intestine (brush border) Small peptides Disaccharidases Monosaccharides Nucleotidases Nucleosides Dipeptidases, carboxypeptidase, and aminopeptidase Amino acids Nucleosidases and phosphatases Nitrogenous bases, sugars, phosphates 19 Absorption in the Small Intestine • small intestine has huge surface area, from villi and microvilli exposed to the intestinal lumen • enormous microvillar surface greatly increases rate of nutrient absorption Microvilli (brush border) at apical (lumenal) surface Lumen Vein carrying blood to hepatic portal vein Blood capillaries Muscle layers Epithelial cells Basal surface Large circular folds Villi Epithelial cells Lacteal Key Nutrient absorption Intestinal wall Villi Lymph vessel 20 Absorption in the Small Intestine 21 Absorption in the Large Intestine • The colon of the large intestine is connected to the small intestine • The cecum aids in fermentation of plant material, connects where the small and large intestines meet • Human cecum has extension (appendix), plays a minor role in immunity Feces stored in rectum until eliminated 22 Absorption in the Large Intestine • The colon houses strains of the bacterium Escherichia coli, some of which produce vitamins • Two sphincters between the rectum and anus control bowel movements – Smooth muscle sphincter (involuntary) – Striated muscle sphincter (voluntary) 23 Adaptations • Herbivores generally have longer alimentary canals than carnivores, reflecting the longer time needed to digest vegetation Small intestine Stomach Small intestine Cecum Colon (large intestine) 24 Carnivore Herbivore Mutualistic Adaptations • Many herbivores have symbiotic microorganisms that digest cellulose • The most elaborate adaptations in ruminants 1 Rumen 2 Reticulum Intestine Esophagus 25 4 Abomasum 3 Omasum Energy Sources and Stores • Animals store excess calories as glycogen in the liver and muscles • Energy secondarily stored as adipose, or fat, cells • When fewer calories are taken in than are expended, fuel is taken from storage and oxidized • Obesity is due to excessive intake of food energy, excess stored as fat • Obesity contributes to diabetes (type 2), cancer of the colon and breasts, heart attacks, and strokes 100 µm Fat cells 26 Energy Sources and Stores Stimulus: Blood glucose level rises after eating. Homeostasis: 90 mg glucose/ 100 mL blood Stimulus: Blood glucose level drops below set point. 27 Energy Sources and Stores • The complexity of weight control in humans is evident from studies of the hormone leptin • Mice that inherit a defect in the gene for leptin become very obese Ghrelin Insulin Leptin PYY 28 Obese mouse with mutant ob gene (left) next to wild-type sibling mouse. 29 Obesity and Evolution • The problem of maintaining weight partly stems from our evolutionary past, when fat hoarding was a means of survival • A species of birds called petrels become obese as chicks; in order to consume enough protein from high-fat food, chicks need to consume more calories than they burn 30 A plump petrel 31 Lecture 13 Summary 1. Essential Nutrients (Ch. 48) Amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals 2. Types of Food Intake and Digestive Tracts (Ch. 48) Suspension, substrate, fluid, bulk feeders Gastrovascular, simple, complex digestive cavities 3. Digestive Tract and Enzymes/Secretions (Ch. 48) Mouth Stomach Auxiliary Organs Small Intestine Large Intestine 4. Adaptations and Control (Ch. 48) Diet and digestive tract Mutualisms Obesity and Energy Stores