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Chapter 15 Lipids
1
15.1
Lipids
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Lipids
2
Lipids are
• biomolecules that contain fatty acids or a steroid nucleus
• soluble in organic solvents, but not in water
• named for the Greek word lipos, which means “fat”
• extracted from cells using organic solvents
• an important feature in cell membranes, fat-soluble
vitamins, and steroid hormones
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
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Types of Lipids
3
There are different types of lipids.
1. Lipids such as waxes, fats, oils, and glycerophospholipids are
esters that can be hydrolyzed to give fatty acids and alcohols.
2. Steroids are also lipids; they do not contain fatty acids and
cannot be hydrolyzed. They are characterized by the steroid
nucleus of four fused carbon rings.
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General Structure of Lipids
4
Lipids are naturally occurring compounds that are soluble in
organic solvents but not in water.
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Learning Check
5
There are two types of lipids, fatty acids and steroids. Which
type is described by the following?
A. contains a four-membered ring system
B. contains long carbon chains
C. includes triacylglycerols
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Solution
6
There are two types of lipids, fatty acids and steroids. Which
type is described by the following?
A. contains a four-membered ring system
steroids
B. contains long carbon chains
fatty acids
C. includes triacylglycerols
fatty acids
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Learning Check
7
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of lipids?
A. may contain a carboxylic acid group
B. may contain a four-ring structure
C. soluble in water
D. mostly nonpolar
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Solution
8
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of lipids?
The answer is C. Lipids are nonpolar and therefore are NOT
soluble in water.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
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Chapter 15 Lipids
9
15.2
Fatty Acids
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Fatty Acids
10
Fatty acids are
• long-chain carboxylic acids
• typically 12–18 carbon atoms
• insoluble in water
• saturated or unsaturated
Olive oil contains 84% unsaturated fatty
acids and 16% saturated fatty acids.
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Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids
11
Fatty acids can be
• saturated, with all single C–C bonds
O
OH
coconut oil, saturated fatty acid
• monounsaturated, with one double C=C bond
• polyunsaturated, with more than one double C=C bond
O
OH
palmitoleic acid, found in butter
monounsaturated fatty acid
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Properties of Saturated Fatty Acids
12
Saturated fatty acids
• contain only single C–C bonds and fit close together in a
regular pattern
• have strong attractions between long carbon chains
• have higher melting points and are usually solids at
room temperature
O
O
O
OH
OH
OH
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Properties of Saturated Fatty Acids
13
In saturated fatty acids, the molecules fit
closely together to give high melting points.
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Properties of Unsaturated Fatty Acids
14
Unsaturated fatty acids
• contain one or more cis
double C=C bonds
• have “kinks” in the fatty
acid chains
HOOC
H
H C
• do not pack closely
• have few attractions
between chains
• have low melting points
COOH
C
“kinks” in
chain
H
C
C
H
• are liquids at room temperature
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Properties of Unsaturated Fatty Acids
15
In unsaturated fatty acids, molecules cannot fit closely
together, resulting in lower melting points.
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Melting Points of Some
Saturated Fatty Acids
16
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Melting Points of Some
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
17
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Learning Check
18
Assign the melting points of –17 C, 13 C, and 69 C to
the correct fatty acid. Explain.
stearic acid
oleic acid
linoleic acid
(18 carbons)
(18 carbons)
(18 carbons)
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
saturated
one double bond
two double bonds
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Solution
19
Stearic acid is saturated and would have a higher melting
point than the unsaturated fatty acids. Because linoleic has
two double bonds, it would have a lower mp than oleic acid,
which has one double bond.
stearic acid
mp 69 C
oleic acid
mp 13 C
linoleic acid
mp –17 C
saturated
most unsaturated
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Prostaglandins
20
Prostaglandins
• are hormone-like substances produced in cells
• are also known as eicosanoids, formed from arachidonic acid,
the polyunsaturated fatty acid with 20 carbon atoms
• differ by the substituents attached to the five-carbon ring
• have many functions, such as lower or raising blood
pressure and stimulating contraction and relaxation of
uterine smooth muscle
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Prostaglandins
21
When tissues are injured, arachidonic acid is converted
to prostaglandins such as PGE and PGF that produce
inflammation and pain in the area.
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Prostaglandins: NSAIDs
22
The treatment of pain, fever, and inflammation is based
on inhibiting the enzymes that convert arachidonic acid
to prostaglandins.
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Prostaglandins: NSAIDs
23
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) block
production of prostaglandins, decreasing pain and inflammation.
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Omega-3 Fatty Acids
24
Unsaturated fats such as those in vegetable oils and fish are
recognized as more beneficial to health than saturated fats.
Vegetables contain omega-6 acids, meaning the first double
bond occurs at carbon 6. Examples of omega-6 acids are
linoleic and arachidonic acids.
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Omega-3 Fatty Acids
25
Fish have high levels of omega-3 acids, meaning the first double
bond occurs at carbon 3. Examples of omega-3 acids include
linolenic, eicosapentaenoic, and docosahexaenoic acids.
Cold-water fish are a source of omega-3 fatty acids.
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Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids
26
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Learning Check
27
Label each of the following fatty acids as saturated,
monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated.
A. linolenic acid
B. palmitoleic acid
C. stearic acid
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Solution
28
Label each of the following fatty acids as saturated,
monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated.
A. linolenic acid
polyunsaturated
B. palmitoleic acid
monounsaturated
C. stearic acid
saturated
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Chapter 15 Lipids
29
15.3
Waxes, Fats, and Oils
Waxes are esters of long-chain alcohols and fatty acids.
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Waxes
30
Waxes are
• esters of saturated fatty acids and long-chain alcohols
• coatings that prevent loss of water by leaves of plants
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Fats and Oils: Triacylglycerols
31
Fats and oils are
• also called triacylglycerols
• esters of glycerol
• produced by esterification
• formed when the hydroxyl groups of glycerol react
with the carboxyl groups of fatty acids
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Triacylglycerols
32
In a triacylglycerol, glycerol forms ester bonds with three
fatty acids.
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Formation of a Triacylglycerol
33
In a triacylglycerol, three hydroxyl groups on a glycerol
molecule form ester bonds with the carboxyl groups of
three fatty acids.
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Triacylglycerols
34
Triacylglycerol may contain different fatty acids.
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Learning Check
35
What are the fatty acids in the following triacylglycerol?
O
CH2
O
C
(CH2)16CH3
O
CH
CH2
O
O
C (CH2)7CH CH(CH2)7CH3
O
C
(CH2)12CH3
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Solution
36
What are the fatty acids in the following triacylglycerol?
O
CH2
O
C
Stearic acid
(CH2)16CH3
O
CH
CH2
O
O
C (CH2)7CH CH(CH2)7CH3
O
C
(CH2)12CH3
Oleic acid
Myristic acid
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Melting Points of Fats and Oils
37
A fat
• is usually solid at room temperature
• is prevalent in meats, whole milk, butter, and cheese
An oil
• is usually liquid at room temperature
• is prevalent in plants such as olive and safflower
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Oils with Unsaturated Fatty Acids
38
Oils
• have more unsaturated fats
• have cis double bonds that cause “kinks” in the fatty
acid chains
• with “kinks” in the chains do not allow the triacylglycerol
molecules to pack closely
• have lower melting points than saturated fatty acids
• are liquids at room temperature
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Diagram of Triacylglycerol with
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
39
Unsaturated fatty acid chains
with kinks cannot pack closely.
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Percent Saturated and Unsaturated
Fatty Acids in Fats and Oils
40
Vegetable oils have low melting points because they have a
higher percentage of unsaturated fatty acids than do animal fats.
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Learning Check
41
Draw the condensed structural formula of glyceryl
trilinoleate (trilinolein).
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Solution
42
Draw the condensed structural formula of glyceryl
trilinoleate (trilinolein).
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Chapter 15 Lipids
43
15.4
Chemical Properties of Triacylglycerols
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Chemical Properties of Triacylglycerols
44
The chemical reactions of triacylglycerols are similar
to those of alkenes and esters. In
• hydrogenation, double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids
react with H2 in the presence of a Ni or Pt catalyst
• hydrolysis, ester bonds are split by water in the presence
of an acid, a base, or an enzyme
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Hydrogenation of Oils
45
The hydrogenation of oils
• adds hydrogen (H2) to the carbon atoms of double bonds
• converts double bonds to single bonds increases the
melting point
• produces solids, such as margarine and shortening
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Hydrogenation
46
When hydrogen adds to all the double bonds of glyceryl
trioleate (triolein) using a nickel catalyst, the product is the
saturated fat glyceryl tristearate (tristearin).
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Learning Check
47
What products are obtained from the complete hydrogenation
of glyceryl trioleate?
A. glycerol and three oleic acids
B. glyceryltristearate
C. glycerol and three stearic acids
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Solution
48
What products are obtained from the complete hydrogenation of
glyceryl trioleate?
B. glyceryltristearate
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Olestra, a Fat Substitute
49
Olestra is
• used in foods as an artificial fat
• sucrose linked by ester bonds to several long-chain fatty chains
• not broken down in the intestinal tract
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Cis and Trans Fatty Acids
50
Unsaturated fatty acids can be
• cis, with bulky groups on same side of C=C
O
OH
• trans, with bulky groups on opposite sides of C=C
O
OH
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Hydrogenation and Trans Fatty Acids
51
• Most naturally occurring fatty acids have cis double bonds.
• During hydrogenation, some cis double bonds are converted
to trans double bonds.
• In the body, trans fatty acids behave like saturated fatty acids.
• It is estimated that 2–4% of our total calories are in the form
of trans fatty acids.
• Several studies reported that trans fatty acids raise
LDL-cholesterol and lower HDL-cholesterol.
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Hydrogenation of Unsaturated Fats
52
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Learning Check
53
Which of the following statements are true and which are false?
A. There are more unsaturated fats in vegetable oils.
B. Vegetable oils have higher melting points than fats.
C. Hydrogenation of oils converts some cis double bonds to
trans double bonds.
D. Animal fats have more saturated fats.
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Solution
54
Which of the following statements are true and which are false?
A. True There are more unsaturated fats in vegetable oils.
B. False Vegetable oils have higher melting points than fats.
C. True Hydrogenation of oils converts some cis double bonds
to trans double bonds.
D. True Animal fats have more saturated fats.
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Hydrolysis
55
In hydrolysis,
• triacylglycerols split into glycerol and three fatty acids
• an acid or enzyme catalyst is required
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Saponification and Soap
56
Saponification
• is the reaction of a fat with a strong base
• splits triacylglycerols into glycerol and the salts of fatty acids
• is the process of forming “soaps” (salts of fatty acids)
• with KOH gives softer soaps
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Saponification
57
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Summary of Organic and Lipid Reactions
58
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Learning Check
59
What products are obtained from the complete hydrolysis
of glyceryl trioleate?
A. glycerol and three oleic acids
B. glyceryl tristearate
C. glycerol and three stearic acids
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Solution
60
What products are obtained from the complete hydrolysis of
glyceryl trioleate?
A. glycerol and three oleic acids
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Learning Check
61
Write the product of the following reaction:
O
CH2
CH
CH2
O
O
O
C
O
(CH2)5CH CH(CH2)7CH3
C (CH2)5CH
O
C
(CH2)5CH
CH(CH2)7CH3 + 3H2
Ni
CH(CH2)7CH3
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Solution
62
O
CH2
O
C (CH2)14CH3
O
CH
O
C (CH2)14CH3
O
CH2
O
C
(CH2)14CH3
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Chapter 15 Lipids
63
15.5
Glycerophospholipids
Fatty acid
Glycerol
Fatty acid
PO4
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
Amino
alcohol
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Glycerophospholipids
64
Glycerophospholipids are
• the most abundant lipids in cell membranes
• composed of glycerol, two fatty acids, phosphate, and an
amino alcohol
Fatty acid
Glycerol
Fatty acid
PO4
Amino
alcohol
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Polarity of Glycerophospholipids
65
Amino alcohols found in glycerophospolipids
• have two nonpolar fatty acid chains, a phosphate group, and a
polar amino alcohol
• are ionized at physiological pH of 7.4
CH3
+
+
HO−CH2−CH2−N−CH3
Choline
CH3
HO−CH2−CH2−NH3
+
Ethanolamine
NH3
HO−CH2−CH−COO− Serine
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Lecithin and Cephalin
66
Lecithin and cephalin are types of glycerophospholipids that are
• abundant in brain and nerve tissues
• found in egg yolk, wheat germ, and yeast
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Structure and Polarity of a
Glycerophospholipid
67
Glycerophospholipids
• have both polar and nonpolar regions that allow them to
interact with polar and nonpolar substances
• have a polar head containing the ionized amino alcohol and
phosphate portion, which is strongly attracted to water
• have a hydrocarbon tail portion only soluble in nonpolar
substances such as lipids
• are the most abundant lipids in cell membranes and play an
important role in cellular permeability
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Structure and Polarity of a
Glycerophospholipid
68
(a) In a glycerophospholipid, a polar head contains
the ionized amino alcohol and phosphate groups,
while the two fatty acids make up the nonpolar tails.
(b) A simplified drawing indicates the polar region
and the nonpolar region.
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Learning Check
69
Identify each of the following as a fatty acid, triacylglycerol,
amino alcohol, or glycerophospholipid.
A. glyceryl trioleate
B. cephalin
C. choline
D. palmitic acid
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Solution
70
Identify each of the following as a fatty acid, triacylglycerol,
amino alcohol, or glycerophospholipid.
A. glyceryl trioleate
B. cephalin
triacylglycerol
glycerophospholipid
C. choline
D. palmitic acid
amino alcohol
fatty acid
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Learning Check
71
Draw the condensed structural formula of a cephalin that contains
stearic acid and serine.
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Solution
72
Draw the condensed structural formula of a cephalin that contains
stearic acid and serine.
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Chapter 15 Lipids
73
15.6
Steroids: Cholesterol, Bile Salts,
and Steroid Hormones
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
HO
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Steroid Nucleus
74
A steroid nucleus consists of
• three cyclohexane rings and one
cylopentane ring fused together
• rings designated as A, B, C,
and D
• numbered carbon atoms
beginning in ring A
steroid nucleus
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Cholesterol
75
Cholesterol
• is the most abundant steroid in the body
• has methyl groups (carbons 10, 13) an alkyl chain (carbon 17),
and an –OH group (carbon 3) attached to the steroid nucleus
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
HO
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Cholesterol in the Body
76
Cholesterol
• is obtained from meats, milk,
and eggs
• is synthesized in the liver
• is needed for cell membranes,
brain and nerve tissue, steroid
hormones, and vitamin D
• clogs arteries when high levels
form plaque
A normal, open artery.
An artery clogged by
cholesterol plaque
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Cholesterol in Foods
77
Cholesterol
• is considered elevated if plasma cholesterol exceeds
200 mg/dL
• is synthesized in the liver and obtained from foods
• increases in the liver when high levels of saturated fat
are consumed
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Cholesterol in Foods
78
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Learning Check
79
Match the components of the cholesterol molecule with
the following:
___ carbon chain
___ hydroxyl group
___ steroid nucleus
___ methyl group
CH3
CH3
B
D
CH3
CH3
CH3
A
HO
C
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Solution
80
Match the components of the cholesterol molecule with
the following:
D carbon chain
A hydroxyl group
C steroid nucleus
B methyl group
CH3
CH3
B
D
CH3
CH3
CH3
A
HO
C
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Bile Salts
81
Bile salts
• are synthesized in the liver from
cholesterol and stored in the
gallbladder
• have polar and nonpolar regions
that act like soaps to make fat
soluble in water
• help in absorption of cholesterol
When large amounts of cholesterol
accumulate in the gallbladder,
gallstones are formed.
Gallstones form in the gallbladder when
cholesterol levels are high.
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Bile Salts
82
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Lipoproteins: Lipid Transport
83
Lipids are nonpolar and made more soluble by combining them
with glycerophospholipids and proteins to form water-soluble
complexes called lipoproteins.
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Lipoproteins
84
Lipoproteins
• surround nonpolar
lipids with polar
lipids and protein
for transport
to cells
• are soluble in
water because the
surface consists of
polar lipids
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Types of Lipoproteins
85
Lipoproteins
• differ in density, composition, and function
• include low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-density
lipoproteins (HDLs)
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Transport of Lipoproteins in the Body
86
Lipoproteins such as HDLs and LDLs transport nonpolar
lipids and cholesterol to cells and the liver.
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Steroid Hormones
87
Steroid hormones are
• chemical messengers that serve as a communication system for
the body
• produced from cholesterol
• sex hormones
- androgens in males (testosterone and androsterone)
- estrogens in females (estradiol)
• adrenal corticosteroids from adrenal glands
- mineralocorticoids (electrolyte balance)
- glucocorticoids (regulate glucose level)
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Sex Hormones
88
Sex hormones include
sex hormones such as
androgens (testosterone)
in males and estrogens
(estradiol) in females.
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Adrenal Corticosteroids
89
Steroid hormones called adrenal corticosteroids
• are produced by the adrenal glands located on the top
of each kidney
• include aldosterone, which regulates electrolytes and
water balance by the kidneys
• include cortisone, a glucocorticoid, which increases
blood glucose level and stimulates the synthesis of
glycogen in the liver
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Adrenal Corticosteroids
90
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Anabolic Steroids
91
Anabolic steroids
• are derivatives of testosterone
• are used illegally to increase muscle mass
• have side effects including fluid retention, hair growth, sleep
disturbance, and liver damage
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Learning Check
92
Identify each of the following as a fatty acid, steroid,
or triacylglycerol.
A. cholesterol
B. stearic acid
C. glyceryl tristearate
D. estradiol
E. contains no fatty acids
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Solution
93
Identify each of the following as a fatty acid, steroid,
or triacylglycerol.
A. cholesterol
B. stearic acid
steroid
fatty acid
C. glyceryl tristearate
D. estradiol
E. contains no fatty acids
triacylglycerol
steroid
steroid
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 15 Lipids
94
15.7
Cell Membranes
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Cell Membranes
95
Cell membranes
• separate cellular contents from the external environment
• consist of a lipid bilayer made of two rows of phospholipids
• have an inner portion made of the nonpolar tails of
phospholipids with the polar heads at the outer and
inner surfaces
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell Membranes
96
The lipid bilayer
• contains proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol
• has unsaturated fatty acids that make cell membranes
fluid-like rather than rigid
• has proteins and carbohydrates on the surface that
communicate with hormones and neurotransmitters
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell Membranes
97
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Transport through Cell Membranes
98
The transport of substances through cell membranes involves
• diffusion (passive transport), which moves particles
from a higher to a lower concentration
• facilitated transport, which uses protein channels
to increase the rate of diffusion
• active transport, which moves ions against a
concentration gradient
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Transport Pathways through
Cell Membranes
99
Substances are transported across a cell membrane by diffusion,
facilitated transport, or active transport.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Check
100
The transport of particles across a cell membrane from high
concentration to low concentration is called
A. facilitated transport
B. diffusion
C. active transport
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Solution
101
The transport of particles across a cell membrane from high
concentration to low concentration is called
The answer is B, diffusion.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Lipids: Concept Map
102
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.