Download Intro to Comparative Government

Sovereignty,
Authority, and Power
States, Nations, and Regimes
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Nation: a group of people bound together by
a common political identity
Nationalism: sense of belonging and identity
that distinguishes one nation from another
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Often translated as patriotism – the resulting
pride and loyalty felt toward the nation
Globalization and fragmentation affecting changes
on nationalism and policymaking
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Democracies
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Indirect: elected officials represent the people
Direct: individuals have immediate say over
policy decisions gov’t makes
Most are indirect b/c large populations make it difficult
for individuals to have much direct influence
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Parliamentary system: citizens vote for
legislative representatives, legislature then
chooses executive branch leaders
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Legislature makes laws, controls finances, appoints prime
minister and cabinet
In reality, legislature almost always votes for bills
proposed by leadership (cabinet and PM)
No separation of powers between executive and
legislative
Typically has separation within executive branch: head of
state – symbolizes the power of regime – and head of
gov’t – deals w/ everyday tasks of running gov’t
Example: Great Britain
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Presidential System
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Head of state and head of gov’t given to only the
president
President elected directly by the people
President serves as chief executive
System of checks and balances between legislative and
executive through separation of powers where each
branch has an independent base of authority
Examples: United States, Mexico, Nigeria
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Semi-presidential system
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PM coexists w/ a president
President elected by the people and typically holds more
power
Example: Russia (but Russia is changing this model under
Putin)
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France and India are other, more stable, examples
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Authoritarian Regimes
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Decisions made by elites – those that hold
political power – w/o input from citizens
Ruled by a dictator, hereditary monarch, aristocrats,
or single political party
Communism: a theory developed by Marx, altered
by Lenin
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Party controls everything: gov’t, economy, social life
State corporatism: gov’t officials interact w/ people
(generally labor & business leaders) outside the gov’t
before setting policy
Patron-client systems: provide reciprocal favors &
services to supporters
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Common characteristics
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Small group of elites exercising power
Citizens w/ little to no input in selection of leaders &
gov’t decisions
No constitutional responsibility of leaders to public
Restriction of civil rights and civil liberties
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Authoritarianism is not same as
totalitarianism – which is used to describe a
particularly repressive, often detested regime
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Totalitarian regimes generally have strong ideological goals
authoritarian systems lack
Authoritarian gov’ts do not necessarily use violence to
destroy obstacles
Military rule: found in states where legitimacy &
stability in question
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Usually begins with a coup d'état, which may/not have
support among the people
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Military leaders will often restrict civil rights in the name of order
Usually lacks ideologies and leaders have no
traditional/legitimate source of authority
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Corporatism in Authoritarian and
Democratic Systems
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Corporatism: method through which business,
labor, other interest groups bargain w/ the state
over economic policy
State corporatism: gov’t controls the public by
creating or recognizing organizations to represent
interests of the public (authoritarian)
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In reality practice eliminates input from groups not
sanctioned by the state
Corporatism gives public a limited influence on
policymaking process
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Co-optation: means a regime uses to get
support of citizens
Patron-clientelism: the state provides specific
benefits or favors to single person or small group in
return for public support
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Unlike corporatism, it relies on individual patronage rather
than organizations
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In democracies, corporatism usually factors
into economic policy and regulation
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Pluralism: power is split among many groups that
compete for the chance to influence gov’t policymaking
Democratic (neo) corporatism different from pluralism
in 2 ways:
1. Democratic pluralism: formation of groups spontaneous;
democratic corporatism: interests representation is
institutionalized
2. Democratic pluralism: dialogue between groups and the
state is voluntary; democratic corporatism:
organizations have legally binding links w/ state agencies
so groups are semi-public agencies acting on behalf of
the state
Legitimacy
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Legitimacy: the right to rule, as determined
by the citizens
3 basic forms of authority
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Traditional: rests upon belief that tradition should determine who
should rule and how
 Rituals & ceremonies reinforce traditional legitimacy
Charismatic: dynamic personality of an individual leader or small
group
 Short lived b/c does not survive its founder
Rational-legal: system of established laws & procedures
 Anchored by strong institutions
 Based on common law (ex Britain) – tradition, past practices,
legal precedents – or code law (China, Mexico, Russia) –
comprehensive system of written laws
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Factors that encourage legitimacy
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Economic well-being
Historical tradition / longevity
Charismatic leadership
Nationalism / shared political culture
Satisfaction w/ the gov’t’s performance /
responsiveness
Political Culture
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Political Culture: the collection of political beliefs,
values, practices, and institutions the gov’t is
based on
Social capital: amount of reciprocity and trust
that exists among citizens, and between citizens
and the state
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Low social capital = more inclined to authoritarian gov’t
High social capital = more inclined to democracy
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Consensual political culture
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Citizens generally agree on how decisions are
made, what issues to address, how problems
should be solved
Accepts both the legitimacy of the regime and
solutions to problems
Conflictual political culture
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Citizens are sharply divided on legitimacy of regime
and solutions to problems
May lead to political subcultures developing; gov’t
finds it difficult to rule effectively
Political Ideologies
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Political ideologies: sets of political values held by
individuals regarding basic goals of gov’t & politics
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Liberalism: emphasis on individual political & economic
freedom; maximize freedom for all people
Communism: values equality over freedom; individual liberties
must give way to the needs of society as a whole
Socialism: accept and promote private ownership and free
market principles, but the state has role to play in regulating the
economy
Fascism: people and groups exist in degrees of inferiority and
superiority; the state has the right & responsibility to mold
society & economy, & to remove obstacles that may weaken
them
Religion: many advanced democracies have separated church
and state; religion plays a different role in each of our 6
countries
Political and
Economic Change
Types of Change
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Reform
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Revolution
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Don’t overthrow basic institutions
Change some methods political & economic leaders
use to reach goals
Involved either a major revision or overthrow of
existing institutions
Impacts more than 1 area of life
Coup d'états
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Replace the leadership of a country w/ new leaders,
by force
Typically occur in countries where gov’t institutions are
weak
Attitudes Toward Change
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Radicalism:
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Liberalism:
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Reform and gradual change rather than revolution
Don’t think political / economic systems are broken, just need to
be repaired / improved
Conservatism:
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belief that rapid, dramatic changes need to be made in society;
current system cannot be saved
See change as disruptive, emphasize change can bring
unforeseen outcomes
State & regime important sources of law & order; legitimacy itself
may be undermined
Reactionary Beliefs:
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Oppose revolution & reform, but find status quo unacceptable
Want to turn back to an earlier era
Like radicals – willing to use violence to get there!
Three Trends
Democratization
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More & more nations turning to some form of popular gov’t
Requirement for democracy: competitive elections – free,
fair, regular; many “democracies” fall into a grey area (Russia,
Nigeria)
Liberal democracies have other characteristics too:
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Civil liberties – freedom of speech, assembly
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Rule of law – equal treatment, due process
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Neutrality of judiciary - & other checks on power
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Open civil society – citizens have private lives, mass media
independent of gov’t
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Civilian control of the military – restricts likelihood of military
coup
Gov’ts with free & fair elections but not the rest: illiberal
democracies
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1st wave of democracy – gradually over time
since 18th century
2nd wave of democracy – de-colonization after
Allied victory in WWII
3rd wave of democracy – began 1970s; characterized
by defeat of dictatorial / totalitarian rulers
Why democratization occurred:
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Loss of legitimacy by authoritarian regimes
Expansion of an urban middle class in developing
countries
“human rights” emphasis from U.S.A. and E.U.
“snowball effect” as one nation becomes democratic it
influences it’s neighbors to do so
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Process begins when conditions are accompanied
by willingness of ruling elite to accept powersharing and a readiness of the people to
participate in the process
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Obstacle to democratization: poverty b/c it blocks
citizens’ participation in gov’t
Democracy may be declared when a country has at
least 2 peaceful turnovers of power
2. Movement Toward Market Economies
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Democratization and marketization – does
one lead to the other or no relation?
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Mexico: moved toward a market economy since 1980s,
democracy seems to have followed
China: moving toward capitalism since 1970s, but no
democracy
Command economies: socialist principles of
centralized planning & state ownership fading
Market economy: the market operates on its own
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Which will be more successful? An independent economy,
or a “mixed economy” that allows for control from the
central government?
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Factors prompting movement to market
economies:
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Belief the government is too big
Lack of success of command economies
(example: Soviet Union)
Marketization: state’s re-creation of a market where
property, labor, goods, services all function
competitively
Privatization: transfer of state-owned property to
private ownership
3. Revival of Ethnic or Cultural Politics
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Fragmentation – divisions based on ethnic or
cultural identity – is becoming increasingly important
Nationalism seemed to be declining in favor of
globalization a few years ago
Politicization of religion has most recently
dominated world politics (example, Middle East)
Citizens, Society, and
the State
Social Cleavages
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Basis: How deep are the divisions? To what
degree do they separate people from one
another (social boundaries)
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Social Class
Ethnic Cleavages
Religious Cleavages
Regional Cleavages
Coinciding / Cross-cutting Cleavages
Cleavages and political institutions: How are the
cleavages expressed in politics? Do the
cleavages block some groups from participating
in gov’t?
Comparing Citizen / State
Relationships
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Attitudes and Beliefs of Citizens – Do citizens
trust the gov’t? Do citizens think the gov’t affects
their lives in significant ways?
Political Socialization – How do citizens learn
about politics? Does the gov’t put forth effort to
politically educate their citizens?
Types of Political Participation –
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Authoritarian – citizen activities include obeying
laws, following orders, paying taxes
Democracy – voting, working for political candidates,
attend meetings, contribute $$
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Voting behavior – Are there regular elections?
Who is eligible to vote? Do elections affect
policy-making?
Factors that influence political beliefs and
behaviors – Do they make a difference in
citizens’ political beliefs and behaviors?
Social Movements
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Social Movements: organized collective
Activities that aim to bring about or resist
fundamental change
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Influence political leaders
Success varies from case to case, but even if they fail,
they often influence political opinion in some way
Civil Society
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Civil Society: organizations outside the gov’t
that help people define & advance their own
interests
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Usually strong in liberal democracies
May be inherently apolitical, but serve as
cornerstone of liberty
Checks power of the state and prevent tyranny of
the majority (tendency in democracies to allow
majority rule to neglect rights and liberties of
minorities)
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Global cosmopolitanism: universal political
order that draws identity & values from
everywhere
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Take shape in nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs)
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National / international groups that pursue policy objectives
& foster public participation
Authoritarian gov’ts do not encourage civil
society
Is generally weak in less-developed countries
Development of civil society needs civic
education
Political Institutions
Levels of Government
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Unitary system: concentrates all policymaking
in 1 central geographic place
Confederal system: spreads power among
many sub-units (ex: states), weak central gov’t
Federal system: divides power between central
gov’t and sub-units
Most countries have unitary systems, but Britain
moving toward more federalism & Nigeria too
weak to effectively concentrate power
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Supranational Organizations and
Globalization
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Supranational organizations go beyond national
boundaries, reflect a trend toward integration binding
states together w/ common policies & shared rules
Reflect phenomenon of globalization – an integration
of social, environmental, economic, and cultural
activities of nations resulting from increasing
international contacts
Fragmentation: a counter trend; tendency for people
to base loyalty on ethnicity, language, religion, cultural
identity
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Modern Challenges to the Nation-State
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Centripetal vs. Centrifugal Forces
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Centripetal Forces bind together people of a state
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i.e. nationalism
Encourages allegiance to single country, loyalty
Symbols include institutions: schools, military, religion,
transportation, broadcasting companies
Centrifugal Forces destabilize the gov’t, encourage
country to fall apart;
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Country not well organized stands to lose loyalty
weak institutions can fail to provide cohesive support
Strong institutions can challenge the gov’t
Separatist movements: nationalities w/in a country demand
independence
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Devolution: Ethnic, Economic, Spatial Forces
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Ethnic Forces
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Economic Forces
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Ethnonationalism: the tendency for an ethnic group to
see itself as a distinct nation w/ a right to autonomy
or independence
Economic inequalities may destabilize a nation-state, esp. if the
inequalities are regional
Spatial Forces
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Devolutionary events most often occur on margins of the state
Distance, remoteness, peripheral location, physical geographic
separation
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Executives
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2 distinct roles: head of state, and head of
government
Functions:
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Policymaking leader
Veto legislation (presidential)
Oversees policy implementation
Cabinet
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(parliamentary) most important decision-making body
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Cabinet coalition: several parties join forces & are represented
in different posts
(presidential) not usually members of legislature; more
independence from president
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Bureaucracies
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Agencies that generally implement government
policy
Usually part of executive branch
Characteristics:
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Hierarchical authority structure: change of command
Task specialization: clear division of labor
Extensive rules: clearly written, well-established rules
Clear goals: all people in organization strive for
The merit principle: merit-based hiring and promotion
Imperonality: job performance judged by productivity
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Bureaucracies in Democracies
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Discretionary power: power to make small
decisions in implementing legislative /
executive decisions
Source of stability; stay through the changes in elected
leadership positions
Bureaucracies in Authoritarian Regimes
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Head of gov’t exercises complete control over their
activities
patronage system: political supporters receive jobs in
return for their assistance
Technocrats: civilian bureaucrats in a military regime
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Common Characteristics of Bureaucracies
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Non-elected positions: are usually appointed
Impersonal, efficient structures
Formal qualifications for jobs
Hierarchical organization
Red tape / inefficiency: large groups seem to stumble
under own size
Legislatures
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Bicameral: 2 houses in legislature; is most
common
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Why?
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Allows for one house to represent regional gov’ts and local
interests; the other serves as a direct democratic link to the
voters
Helps counterbalance disproportionate power in the hands
of any region
Unicameral: 1 house in legislature
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Functions of Legislatures
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Form, debate, vote on political policies
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Varying degrees of power
Control country’s spending
Elite recruitment: identifying future leaders of the
gov’t
Judiciaries
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Courts in authoritarian regimes have little / no
independence; decisions controlled by chief executive
Constitutional courts: serve to defend democratic
principles of a country against infringement by both
private citizens and the gov’t
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Highest judicial body that rules on constitutionality of laws &
other gov’t action
Judicial Review: allows courts to review laws and
executive actions for constitutionality
Growth of judicial power over past 100 years spurred by
desire to protect human rights
Linkage Institutions
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Linkage Institutions: groups that connect the
gov’t to its citizens (political parties, interest
groups, print / electronic media)
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Parties:
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Bring different people & ideas together
Provide labels for candidates to help citizens decide how to
vote
Hold politicians accountable to electorate
Most countries have multi-party systems – usually arise in
countries w/ strong parliamentary systems, esp. those that
use proportional representation
Single-party system a rarity – in only 15 countries
Electoral Systems and Elections
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Electoral systems: rules that decide how
votes are cast, counted, translated into
seats in legislature
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First-past-the-post: divide constituencies into singlemember districts – candidates compete for single seat
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Proportional representation: creates multi-member
districts – with more than one legislative seat is
contested in each district
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a.k.a. plurality system or winner-take-all system where
winner doesn’t need majority to win, just more votes than the
others!
Voters cast votes for parties, not candidates
Mixed system: combines first-past-the-post &
proportional; encourage large, broad based parties b/c
no mater how many people run, person w/ largest # of
votes wins!
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Types of elections
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Elections of public officials
Referendums
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Plebiscite: variation of referendum; ballot to consult public
opinion in nonbinding way
Initiative
Interest Groups
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Interest groups: organization of like-minded
people to influence & shape public policy
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In liberal democracies, they are independent from
gov’t
Strength of interest groups
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Degree of autonomy from gov’t
Interest group pluralism: autonomous groups
compete w/ each other for influence; criticism:
increases inefficiency in policymaking
Public Policy
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Public policy is generally directed toward
addressing issues and solving problems
Common policy issues:
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Economic performance: measured by GDP, GNP,
GNP / GDP per capita, Purchasing Power Parity
Social Welfare: health, employment, education
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Measured using: Gini Index – formula that measures the
amount of economic inequality in society; human
Development Index factors in adult literacy, life
expectancy, educational enrollment, GDP
Civil liberties, rights, and freedoms
Environment – effort to go green!