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The Monetary System IMBA Macroeconomics II Lecturer: Jack Wu Money Money is the set of assets in an economy that people regularly use to buy goods and services from other people. Functions of Money Money has three functions in the economy: Medium of exchange Unit of account Store of value Liquidity Liquidity Liquidity is the ease with which an asset can be converted into the economy’s medium of exchange. Kinds of Money Commodity money takes the form of a commodity with intrinsic value. Examples: Gold, silver, cigarettes. Fiat money is used as money because of government decree. It does not have intrinsic value. Examples: Coins, currency, check deposits. Money in the Economy Currency is the paper bills and coins in the hands of the public. Demand deposits are balances in bank accounts that depositors can access on demand by writing a check. Money Supply M1 _ M1A _ M1B M2 Federal Reserve The Federal Reserve (Fed) serves as the nation’s central bank. It is designed to oversee the banking system. It regulates the quantity of money in the economy. Federal Open Market Committee The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) Serves as the main policy-making organ of the Federal Reserve System. Meets approximately every six weeks to review the economy. Monetary Policy Monetary policy is conducted by the Federal Open Market Committee. Monetary policy is the setting of the money supply by policymakers in the central bank The money supply refers to the quantity of money available in the economy. Open-Market Operations Open-Market Operations The money supply is the quantity of money available in the economy. The primary way in which the Fed changes the money supply is through open-market operations. The Fed purchases and sells U.S. government bonds. Open-Market Operations: continued Open-Market Operations To increase the money supply, the Fed buys government bonds from the public. To decrease the money supply, the Fed sells government bonds to the public. Banks and Money Supply Banks can influence the quantity of demand deposits in the economy and the money supply. Reserves are deposits that banks have received but have not loaned out. In a fractional-reserve banking system, banks hold a fraction of the money deposited as reserves and lend out the rest. Reserve Ratio The reserve ratio is the fraction of deposits that banks hold as reserves. Money Creation When a bank makes a loan from its reserves, the money supply increases. The money supply is affected by the amount deposited in banks and the amount that banks loan. Deposits into a bank are recorded as both assets and liabilities. The fraction of total deposits that a bank has to keep as reserves is called the reserve ratio. Loans become an asset to the bank. T-Account T-Account shows a bank that… accepts deposits, keeps a portion as reserves, and lends out the rest. It assumes a reserve ratio of 10%. T-Account: First National Bank First National Bank Assets Reserves $10.00 Liabilities Deposits $100.00 Loans $90.00 Total Assets $100.00 Total Liabilities $100.00 Money Creation: continued When one bank loans money, that money is generally deposited into another bank. This creates more deposits and more reserves to be lent out. When a bank makes a loan from its reserves, the money supply increases. Money Multiplier How much money is eventually created in this economy? The money multiplier is the amount of money the banking system generates with each dollar of reserves. The Money Multiplier First National Bank Assets Liabilities Reserves $10.00 Deposits $100.00 Loans Second National Bank Assets Reserves $9.00 Liabilities Deposits $90.00 Loans $90.00 Total Assets Total Liabilities $100.00 $100.00 $81.00 Total Assets $90.00 Total Liabilities $90.00 Money Supply = $190.00! Money Multiplier:continued The money multiplier is the reciprocal of the reserve ratio: M = 1/R With a reserve requirement, R = 20% or 1/5, The multiplier is 5. Tools of Money Control The Fed has three tools in its monetary toolbox: Open-market operations Changing the reserve requirement Changing the discount rate Open-Market Operations Open-Market Operations The Fed conducts open-market operations when it buys government bonds from or sells government bonds to the public: When the Fed buys government bonds, the money supply increases. The money supply decreases when the Fed sells government bonds. Reserve Requirements Reserve Requirements The Fed also influences the money supply with reserve requirements. Reserve requirements are regulations on the minimum amount of reserves that banks must hold against deposits. Change the Reserve Requirement Changing the Reserve Requirement The reserve requirement is the amount (%) of a bank’s total reserves that may not be loaned out. Increasing the reserve requirement decreases the money supply. Decreasing the reserve requirement increases the money supply. Change Discount Rate Changing the Discount Rate The discount rate is the interest rate the Fed charges banks for loans. Increasing the discount rate decreases the money supply. Decreasing the discount rate increases the money supply. Problems in Controlling Money Supply The Fed’s control of the money supply is not precise. The Fed must wrestle with two problems that arise due to fractional-reserve banking. The Fed does not control the amount of money that households choose to hold as deposits in banks. The Fed does not control the amount of money that bankers choose to lend. Money Supply The money supply is a policy variable that is controlled by the Fed. Through instruments such as open-market operations, the Fed directly controls the quantity of money supplied. Money Demand Money demand has several determinants, including interest rates and the average level of prices in the economy People hold money because it is the medium of exchange. The amount of money people choose to hold depends on the prices of goods and services. Value of Money, 1/P (High) Price Level, P Money supply 1 1 3 1.33 /4 12 / Equilibrium value of money (Low) A (Low) 2 Equilibrium price level 14 4 / Money demand 0 Quantity fixed by the Fed Quantity of Money (High) Copyright © 2004 South-Western Value of Money, 1/P (High) MS1 MS2 1 1 1. An increase in the money supply . . . 3 2. . . . decreases the value of money . . . Price Level, P /4 12 / 1.33 A 2 B 14 / (Low) 3. . . . and increases the price level. 4 Money demand (High) (Low) 0 M1 M2 Quantity of Money Copyright © 2004 South-Western Quantity Theory of Money The Quantity Theory of Money How the price level is determined and why it might change over time is called the quantity theory of money. The quantity of money available in the economy determines the value of money. The primary cause of inflation is the growth in the quantity of money. Velocity of Money The velocity of money refers to the speed at which the typical dollar bill travels around the economy from wallet to wallet. V = (P Y)/M Where: V = velocity P = the price level Y = the quantity of output M = the quantity of money Quantity Equation Rewriting the equation gives the quantity equation: MV=PY The quantity equation relates the quantity of money (M) to the nominal value of output (P Y). Quantity Equation The quantity equation shows that an increase in the quantity of money in an economy must be reflected in one of three other variables: the price level must rise, the quantity of output must rise, or the velocity of money must fall. Inflation Tax When the government raises revenue by printing money, it is said to levy an inflation tax. An inflation tax is like a tax on everyone who holds money. The inflation ends when the government institutes fiscal reforms such as cuts in government spending.
