Download Capital Marketing

Capital Marketing
9th March 2010
Topics to be covered
 Yield Curve
 Stock Valuation
 Indian Financial System
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Yield Curve
YIELD CURVE
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Yield Curve

In finance, the yield curve is the relation between the interest rate (or cost of
borrowing) and the time to maturity of the debt for a given borrower in a given
currency.

The yield of a debt instrument is the annualized percentage increase in the
value of the investment.

This function Y is called the yield curve, and it is often, but not always, an
increasing function of t.

The yield curve function Y is actually only known with certainty for a few specific
maturity dates, the other maturities are calculated by interpolation

Yield curves are usually upward sloping; the longer the maturity, the higher the
yield, with diminishing marginal growth.

The opposite situation — short-term interest rates higher than long-term — also
can occur.

The yield curve may also be flat or hump-shaped, due to anticipated interest
rates being steady or short-term volatility outweighing long-term volatility.
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Example
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Types of Yield Curve

The yield curves corresponding to the bonds issued by governments in their own
currency are called the government bond yield curve (government curve).
 Besides the government curve and the LIBOR curve, there are corporate (company)
curves. These are constructed from the yields of bonds issued by corporations.
Normal yield curve
 From the post-Great Depression era to the present, the yield curve has usually been
"normal" meaning that yields rise as maturity lengthens (i.e., the slope of the yield
curve is positive).
 Investors price these risks into the yield curve by demanding higher yields for
maturities further into the future.
Steep yield curve
 Historically, the 20-year Treasury bond yield has averaged approximately two
percentage points above that of three-month Treasury bills.
Flat or humped yield curve
 A flat yield curve is observed when all maturities have similar yields, whereas a
humped curve results when short-term and long-term yields are equal and mediumterm yields are higher than those of the short-term and long-term.
Inverted yield curve
 An inverted yield curve occurs when long-term yields fall below short-term yields.
 An inverted curve may indicate a worsening economic situation in the future.
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Yield Curve Theories
Theories:
 There are four main economic theories attempting to explain how yields
vary with maturity. Two of the theories are extreme positions, while the
third attempts to find a middle ground between the former two.
 Market expectations (pure expectations) hypothesis
 Market segmentation theory
 Liquidity preference theory
 Malinvestment Theory
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Market Expectations (pure expectations) Hypothesis

This theory is also called the expectation hypothesis.

In this theory, financial instruments of different durations are considered perfect
substitutes.

The market expectations theory states that a certificate of deposit for 2 years
will have the same yield as a CD for 1 year followed by another CD for 1 year.

This theory suggests that the yield on a long-term instrument is equal to
the geometric mean of the yield on a series of short-term instruments.

This theory perfectly explains the stylized fact that yield tend to move together.
However, it fails to explain the other stylized facts regarding a normal yield
curve.
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Market Segmentation Theory

This theory is also called the segmented market hypothesis.

In this theory, financial instruments of different terms are not substitutable. As a
result, the supply and demand in the markets for short-term and long-term
instruments is determined independently.

Prospective investors would have to decide in advanced whether they need
short-term or long-term instruments.

Due to the fact that investors prefer their portfolio to be liquid, they will prefer
short-term instruments to long-term instruments.

Therefore, the market for short-term instruments will receive a higher demand.
Higher demand for the instrument implies higher prices and lower yield. This
explain the stylized fact that short-term yield is usually lower than long-term
yield.

This theory explains the stylized fact about a normal yield curve. However,
because the supply and demand of the two markets are still independent, this
theory fails to explain the stylized fact that yields of different terms move
together.
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Liquidity Preference Theory
 This theory is also called preferred habitat hypothesis.
 This theory attempts to find the middle ground in former two theories. It
is also the most accepted theory of the three.
 This theory introduces an element called the liquidity premium stating
that debtors must pay an incentive to lenders in order to obtain funds for
a longer duration.
 This explains the stylized fact that long-term yield is often higher than
short-term yield.
 In this theory, instruments of different terms are imperfect substitutes,
which mean the yield rates are related but not identical
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Alternative Theories
Malinvestment Theory
 Austrian School economist Dr. Paul Cwik claims that the yield curve's
shape depends mostly upon actions by a monetary authority that
promote an atmosphere of Malinvestment resulting from periods of
loose monetary policy.
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Stock Valuation
STOCK VALUATION
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Stock Valuation

There are several methods used to value companies and their stocks. They
attempt to give an estimate of their fair value, by using fundamental economic
criteria. This theoretical valuation has to be perfected with market criteria, as
the final purpose is to determine potential market prices.
Fundamental criteria (fair value)

The most theoretically sound stock valuation method is called income valuation
or the discounted cash flow (DCF) method, involving discounting the profits
(dividends, earnings, or cash flows) the stock will bring to the stockholder in the
foreseeable future, and a final value on disposition.
Approximate valuation approaches

Average growth approximation: Assuming that two stocks have the same
earnings growth, the one with a lower P/E is a better value.

Constant growth approximation: The Gordon model or Gordon's growth
model is the best known of a class of discounted dividend models.
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Gordon Formula
 The valuation is given by the formula:
 The following table defines each symbol:
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Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM)
 The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) is used in finance to
determine a theoretically appropriate required rate of return (and thus
the price if expected cash flows can be estimated) of an asset, if that
asset is to be added to an already well-diversified portfolio, given that
asset's non-diversifiable risk
 The CAPM is a model for pricing an individual security (asset) or a
portfolio
 The model takes into consideration four things
» Risk free return
» Market returns
» Beta of stock
» Risk premium (Market returns-Risk free returns)
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CAPM Model
 Model that describes the relationship between risk and expected
return and that is used in the pricing of risky securities
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Asset Pricing
Asset Pricing

Once the expected return, E(Ri), is calculated using CAPM, the future cash
flows of the asset can be discounted to their present value using this rate
(E(Ri)), to establish the correct price for the asset.
Asset-specific Required Return

The CAPM returns the asset-appropriate required return or discount rate - i.e.
the rate at which future cash flows produced by the asset should be discounted
given that asset's relative riskiness.
Risk and Diversification

The risk of a portfolio comprises systematic risk, also known as undiversifiable
risk, and unsystematic risk which is also known as idiosyncratic risk or
diversifiable risk.
The (Markowitz) Efficient Frontier

The CAPM assumes that the risk-return profile of a portfolio can be optimized an optimal portfolio displays the lowest possible level of risk for its level of
return.
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Indian Financial Sector
INDIAN FINANCIAL SECTOR
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Introduction
 Financial sector of an economy is a multi-faceted term. It refers to the
whole gamut of legal and institutional arrangements, financial
intermediaries, markets and instruments with both domestic and
external dimensions.
 A financial system helps to mobilize the financial surpluses of an
economy and transfers them to areas of financial deficit. It is the
linchpin of any development strategy.
 These reforms have paved the way for integration among various
segments of the financial system.
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Indian Financial System
 The economic development of a nation is reflected by the progress of
the various economic units, broadly classified into corporate sector,
government and household sector.
 A financial system or financial sector functions as an intermediary and
facilitates the flow of funds from the areas of surplus to the areas of
deficit.
 A Financial System is a composition of various institutions, markets,
regulations and laws, practices, money manager, analysts, transactions
and claims and liabilities.
Financial System
 The word "system", in the term "financial system", implies a set of
complex and closely connected or interlined institutions, agents,
practices, markets, transactions, claims, and liabilities in the economy.
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Financial Markets
 A Financial Market can be defined as the market in which financial
assets are created or transferred.
 As against a real transaction that involves exchange of money for real
goods or services, a financial transaction involves creation or transfer of
a financial asset.
 Money Market- The money market ifs a wholesale debt market for lowrisk, highly-liquid, short-term instrument.
 Capital Market - The capital market is designed to finance the longterm investments.
 Forex Market - The Forex market deals with the multicurrency
requirements, which are met by the exchange of currencies.
 Credit Market- Credit market is a place where banks, FIs and NBFCs
purvey short, medium and long-term loans to corporate and individuals.
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Constituents of a Financial System
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Financial Intermediation
 Having designed the instrument, the issuer should then ensure that
these financial assets reach the ultimate investor in order to garner the
requisite amount.
 Adequate information of the issue, issuer and the security should be
passed on to take place.
 Financial intermediation in the organized sector is conducted by a wide
range of institutions functioning under the overall surveillance of the
Reserve Bank of India.
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Financial Instruments
Money Market Instruments
 The money market can be defined as a market for short-term money
and financial assets that are near substitutes for money.
Capital Market Instruments
 The capital market generally consists of the following long term period
i.e., more than one year period, financial instruments;
Hybrid Instruments
 Hybrid instruments have both the features of equity and debenture. This
kind of instruments is called as hybrid instruments. Examples are
convertible debentures, warrants etc.
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Government Securities Market

Governments raise monetary resources by way of public borrowings to bridge
the gap between budgetary receipts and payments, technically known as Gross
Fiscal Deficit (GFD).

Management of public debt by the RBI involves various policy considerations,
which include optimization of cost of borrowing, achieving dispersion of
ownership of government securities down to the retail level and fostering a deep
and vibrant market for government securities. Demand for credit from
productive sectors and other events such as foreign funds flows and monetary
policy actions can impact the liquidity conditions in the market.

The Indian debt market is dominated by government securities both in terms of
outstanding stock as well as turnover.

Government securities market in India has thus passed through different stages
reflecting the developments in the financial sector from time to time.

Financial sector reforms initiated in the year 1992 provided an impetus to RBI's
efforts to bring about debt market reforms.
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Long Term Loans Market
Characteristics of a Term Loan
 "Term" refers to the time for which money (a secured loan) is required
and the period over which the loan repayment is scheduled.
 Debt lenders (creditors) make loans to businesses that exhibit strong
management ability and steady growth potential.
Types of Loan Security Agreements
 Promissory Note
 Realty Mortgage
 Chattel Mortgage (When an interest is given on moveable property
other than real property (usually a 'mortgage'), in writing, to guarantee
the payment of a debt or the execution of some action)




Pledge
Floating Charge: Lien or mortgage on an asset that changes in quantity
and / or value from time to time (such as an inventory), to secure the
repayment of a loan
Personal Guarantee
Postponement of a Claim
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Approaching Long Term Debt Lenders
 The predictability of repayment and degree of control over loan security
makes the asset-based long term loan the preferred investment of most
lenders and lending institutions
 These long term debt financing sources can be divided again into the
sub-categories of:
» Mortgage Lenders
» Term Loan Lenders
» Equipment Leasing Lenders
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Type of Lenders
Mortgage Lenders

The institutional providers of first level mortgage lending include the Insurance
Companies, the Banks, the Trust Companies and the Pension Funds.
(Long) Term Loan Lenders

The providers of basic long term loans include the Banks, the Trust Companies, the
Insurance Companies, the Pension Funds and various Loan Specialists.
Equipment Financing/Leasing Lenders

The providers of term loans to finance equipment include the Banks, the Trust
Companies, the Insurance Companies, the independent sales finance companies
and, on occasion, the equipment vendors themselves.
Mortgage to GDP Ratio In India

The Mortgage to GDP Ratio (ratio of outstanding home loans to GDP) in India is
very insignificant in comparison to the other countries.
IFC and India’s Housing Finance Market

The International Finance Corporation, the private sector arm of the World Bank
Group, has provided financing package of $200 million to HDFC (Housing
Development Finance Corporation).
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Financial Guarantees Market
 Financial Guarantee: (very much like a standby letter of credit) is a
letter of guarantee to the primary lender that a given debt will be covered
should the borrower fails in their commitments, very much the same as a
standby letter of credit
 Balance of Payments: A statement that contains details of all the
economic transactions of a country with the rest of the world, for a given
time period, usually one year
 Balance Sheet: A statement of the financial position of an enterprise, as
on a certain date, and in a certain format showing the type and amounts
of the various ASSETS owned, LIABILITIES owed, and shareholder’s
funds
 Bank Guarantee: The financial guarantees and performance guarantees
issued by banks on behalf of their clients
 Bank Rate: The rate of interest charged by the Reserve Bank of India
(RBI) on financial accommodation extended to banks and financial
institutions
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Money Market in India
 The money market is a mechanism that deals with the lending and
borrowing of short term funds
 In order to study the money market of India in detail, we at first need to
understand the parameters around which the money market in India
revolves.
 The performance of the Indian Money Market is heavily dependent on
real interest rate that is the interest rate that is inflation adjusted
 It is due to this disparity between the opposite forces that is prevalent in
the money market in India that a well defined income path cannot be
traced
 The money market is also closely linked with the Foreign Exchange
Market through the process of covered interest arbitrage in which the
forward premium acts as a bridge between domestic and foreign
interest rates
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Secondary Market in India

Lack of sustained buoyancy in the secondary market has contributed to the poor investor
interest in the primary market. Measures taken by the Government as well as SEBI in
regard to buy-back of shares have therefore been designed to boost investor interest in
the share market.
Buy-back of shares

The Companies (Amendment) Ordinance promulgated on October 31, 1998 has
empowered companies to purchase their own shares or other specified securities
(referred to as “buy-back”).
Sweat Equity

As per provisions of the Companies (Amendment) Ordinance, companies can issue
sweat equity shares subject to authorization by a resolution passed by a general meeting.
Takeover Regulations

The reconstituted Bhagwati Committee considered the provisions of SEBI (Substantial
Acquisitions of Shares and Takeovers) Regulations, 1997 relating to consolidation of
holdings, threshold limit and acquisitions during the offer period.
Margin Requirements

The secondary market witnessed considerable volatility in share prices. Market
sentiments were affected by, inter alia, reports relating to imposition of US sanctions, and
adverse developments in international financial markets arising from the spread of the
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East Asian financial crisis.
Inside Trading

The prevention of insider trading is widely treated as an important function of
securities regulation.

This has led many observers in India to mechanically accept the notion that the
prohibition of insider trading is an important function of SEBI.

In order to make sense of insider trading, we must go back to a basic
understanding of markets, prices and the role of markets in the economy.

It is not hard to see that when company insiders trade on the secondary market,
they speed up the flow of information and forecasts into prices.

Insider trading is often equated with market manipulation, yet the two
phenomena are completely different.

Insider trading appears unfair, especially to speculators outside a company who
face difficult competition in the form of inside traders.

Indeed, inside traders competing with professional traders is not unlike foreign
goods competing on the domestic market -- the economy at large benefits even
though one class of economic agents suffers.
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Review on Depository Services in India
Dematerialization or demat is a process to convert the securities held in
physical form into an electronic form or to directly allot securities in
electronic record form.
1.
Process of Dematerialization
2.
Objective of promotion of NSDL
3.
Depository
4.
Depository Participant
5.
Operational Process
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That’s all folks …!!!
THAT’S ALL FOLKS …!!!
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