Download gender and education 2

Incorporating Gender Concerns
in Public Policy
Gender and Education
Presentation made by Ratna M. Sudarshan, ISST
At IIPA, September 12 2007
1951: literacy levels 25% for men and 9% for women
Constitution envisaged that within ten years universal literacy would have been
achieved.
Constitution gave primary responsibility for elementary education to the State
Governments, while technical and higher education was the responsibility of the
Central Government. This situation changed in 1976 after the 42nd Amendment to
the Constitution was passed, making all education a joint responsibility of Central
and State Governments.
Central government financing of education has been described as `small but
strategic’ and state government financing as `large but tightly constrained’ (World
Bank 1997). It is therefore possible to distinguish phases of educational
development based on changes in Central Government policy towards education.
These are, from 1951 to the mid-sixties; mid-sixties to 1986; 1986 to 1991; and
from 1991 onwards
Education Policy in India
Period
Policy Framework
Programmes and Approaches of the Central Government
1951-1968
Constitution of India
Expansion of the formal schooling system; initiative for primary
education with State Governments
Single track system
1968-1986
National Policy on
Education 1968
Non Formal Education introduced to supplement formal schooling;
from the early 80’s, increased Central investment in primary schooling
1986-1992
National Policy on
Education 1986
Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project early 1980s
Environmental Education 1986
Rajasthan Shiksha Karmi Project 1987
Total Literacy Campaign 1988
Mahila Samakhya in Karnataka, UP and Gujarat 1989
Bihar Education Project 1991
Rajasthan Lok Jumbish 1992
UP Basic Education Project 1992
Several innovative programmes were started as Centrally sponsored
schemes, mostly with foreign assistance and usually involving NGOs;
target group oriented
1992 to
present
National Policy on
Education 1992
93rd Constitutional
Amendment,
(free and compulsory
education a fundamental
right, 6-14 year olds)
District Primary Education Project (DPEP) 1993 (expected to be the
channel for all substantial external assistance to primary education)
Madhya Pradesh Education Guarantee Scheme 1997
Decentralization is emphasized as a major policy thrust.
Universalization
Objective of incorporating a gender perspective in education policy is to go
beyond parity to equality ‘in, within and through’ education.
Equality and Parity
Gender parity measures the equality of outcome in enrolment between women
and men, with parity being calculated in terms of the measure 1 (the male
standard).
Gender equality measures have tended to be defined in terms of the
measurement of outcomes in subsequent educational progress of attendance,
repetition and completion. Academic achievements are another measure of
equality beyond parity.
From Ramya Subrahmanian (2006)
BY 'BETTER GIRLS' EDUCATION' WE MEAN …
a. Gender-sensitive targeting
b. Deepening understandings of gender equality
c. Reconceptualizing learning
d. Making schools more responsive to local needs
e. Child-centredness and the empowerment of girls
f. Involving parents, especially mothers, in decision-making
g. Intervening in social spaces to influence change
h. Empowering and resourcing teachers, especially women teachers
i. Building traditions that celebrate learning
j. Using research to identify problems and hear voices of stakeholders
k. Ongoing monitoring
l. Legalizing rights.
From Ramya Subrahmanian (2006)
Adult Literacy Programmes
The main strategy that has been followed since 1988 to spread adult literacy
has been the Total Literacy Campaign of the National Literacy Mission, using
volunteers in time bound decentralized programmes.
The NLM was revamped in 1999.
Goal: 75% literacy by 2007 by imparting functional literacy to non-literates in the
15-35 age group.
Literacy Rates by Sex (1981-2001)
80
75.26
70
60
In per cent
64.84
64.13
56.38
52.21
53.67
50
43.57
39.29
40
Female
Male
Person
29.76
30
20
10
0
1981
1991
2001
Census years
Source : Census of India
Year
M
F
1991
64
39
2001
75
54
2001 (SC)
66.6
41.9
2001 (ST)
59
34.8
The Mahila Samakhya Programme (Education for Women’s Empowerment)
started in 1989 focuses especially on socially and economically disadvantaged
and marginalised groups of women.
Emphasises the process of learning, and seeks to bring about a change in
women's perceptions about themselves and the perception of society in regard to
women's roles.
‘Education’ is understood as the process of learning to question, critically
analyse issues and problems and seek solutions.
Operational in 9 states.
Schooling for all
The 93rd Constitutional Amendment makes free and compulsory education a
fundamental right for all children in the 6-14 age group.
GOI committed to realizing the goal of elementary education for all by 2010.
The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), launched in 2000, is the national umbrella
programme that is spearheading the universalisation of elementary education for
the children who are difficult to bring to school.
The Gross Enrollment Ratio for girls in primary education has increased from
64.1% in 1980-81 to 85.2% in 1999-2000. It is still less than that for boys.
Enrolment for boys was 104.1% in 1999-2000.
Gross Enrollment and Dropout Rates, 1997 and 2002
38.4
Boys
2002
105.5
39.9
Girls
86.9
Dropout rates
38.2
Boys
99.3
1997
Gross
Enrollment
41.3
Girls
82.2
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Source : Selected Educational Statistics, HRD Ministry, Government of India
Dropout rates among SC and ST boys and girls
AP Karnataka Maharashtra Orissa
Dropout SC boys I-V
44.09
6.12
17.02
44.99
Dropout SC girls I-V
46.12
14.03
18.21
42.36
Dropout SC boys VI-VIII 63.41
27.19
30.03
63.73
Dropout SC girls VI-VIII 68.87
51.61
38.22
67.17
Dropout ST boys I-V
63.29
4.88
34.42
59.58
Dropout ST girls I-V
68.47
4.96
42.82
63.19
Dropout ST boys VI-VIII 76.80
53.81
59.12
76.49
Dropout ST girls VI-VIII 82.49
56.80
65.14
76.56
Rajasthan
53.07
36.29
69.65
80.07
52.19
38.31
70.42
79.63
Source: Select Education Statistics. (2006) Government of India, New Delhi.; Vimala Ramachandran Incentives Study
The National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL), a
component of SSA, provides region specific strategies to enable girls to come to
school, provide remedial teaching through bridge courses and residential camps. It
targets the most educationally backward blocks in the country where the female
literacy rate is below the national average and the gender gap is above the national
average.
Social learning curriculum (SLC) started as part of a small educational project for
girls and later adapted for about 150 government schools in Uttar Pradesh, has
been an attempt to include overt teaching lessons with broad objectives of
developing appreciation for equity, respect for diversity and democracy, capability
to question, argue and negotiate in the context of real life experiences and social
situations. Initially aimed at girls and later all the children in the 9+ age group, the
SLC is based on the belief that schooling is an influential form of socialization
where children from an early age are capable of learning complex values,
processes, relations and positions, if taught and transacted through appropriate
methods and tools. Two initiatives Udaan and Janshala need a special mention.
The Udaan experience reflects upon the content and the process of developing the
SLC, training the teachers, the challenges faced and the impact on girls. Janshala
is a school improvement programme operational in all formal primary schools of
138 blocks in India.
There are several programmes of Early Childhood Care and Education which
include the ICDS, Crèches, Balwadis, ECE centres, Pre-Primary schools run by the
state and the private sector and many experimental and innovative projects like
Mobile Crèches…
Making education a Fundamental Right for the 6-14 age group has however had
the result of inadequate attention being given to the age group 0-6 years, as well
as the 14-18 age group, in educational programmes.
Schooling has been made completely free for girls in most states upto the higher
secondary stage. The participation of girls in Secondary Education has been
increasing steadily from 13.3% in 1950-51 to 39.9% in 2001-02. Various Centrally
Sponsored Schemes have been formulated to strengthen school education and a
large number of girls have benefited from these schemes.
Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNVs) have been setup in rural areas as pace
setting school for talented rural children and also to ensure greater participation of
girls from SC/ST communities and from households below the poverty line. One
third of seats in JNVs is reserved for girls.
In the higher education sector, the University Grants Commission (UGC) has been
implementing various schemes for promoting women’s education in Universities
and Colleges like schemes of grants to women’s universities for technical courses,
scheme for construction of women’s hostels, setting up of Women’s Study Centres
in 34 universities etc. Participation of women students in polytechnics was one of
the thrust areas under World Bank assisted Technical Education Project. The
scheme of community polytechnic aims at bringing in communities and
encouraging rural development through Science and Technology apprenticeship
and through skill oriented non-formal training focused on women, minorities,
SCs/STs/OBCs and other disadvantaged sections of the society. Currently, 43% of
the total beneficiaries are women.
Life Skills
The NCW initiated a countrywide Legal Awareness Programme for women in 1996.
The camps are participative rather than academic.
Vocational education
Vocational training: a link between education and employment.
Only 5 % of the Indian labour force in the age group of 20-24 years has obtained
vocational training. The corresponding figure in industrialized countries is much
higher (between 60% and 80%) and even when set against developing countries
this is very low (Mexico has 28%, Peru 17%). (vol 1.part 2.1083).
An innovative pilot project linking the existing training institutions with the needs
of illiterate women in informal employment, and encouraging women to acquire
non-traditional skills, has been started in two cities with support from the ILO.
Special Measures
Dropout Rates 2001-02
90
80
70
60
50
SCs
STs
Overall
40
30
20
10
0
Boys
Girls
Classes I-V
Boys
Girls
Classes I-VIII
Boys
Girls
Classes I-X
Source : Selected Educational Statistics, HRD Ministry, Government of India
The scheme of ‘Special Educational Development Programmes for SC girls
belonging to Low Literacy Districts’ introduced in 1996-7 seeks to establish
residential schools for girls from SC communities, to encourage first generation
learners from low literacy pockets.
A primary school can be opened within 1 km of an SC/ST habitation of 200
population, while the norm for general population is 300 population.
Students from these communities are entitled to free textbooks, uniforms,
stationery, school bags etc.
Other incentives include reservation of seats in institutions of higher education,
remedial and special coaching, and scholarships.
Resources
Resources allocated to education were 3.49% of the GDP in 1997-98 and
4.02% in 2001-2, although the commitment to increase resources to 6% of
GDP was accepted in 1995.
Table 4.1 : Expenditure by level of Education in India (in million)
Year
Elementary
Secondary/Higher
Adult Education
Secondary
Expendi
-ture
% to
GDP
Expendi
-ture
% to
GDP
University &
Total
Higher edu.
Expendi
-ture
% to
GDP
Expenditure
% to
GDP
Expenditure
200001
% to
GDP
3.95
200102
40019.4
1.75
25163.5
1.10
359.6
0.02
14323.3
0.63
79865.7
3.50
200203
43043.4
1.76
28301.3
1.15
415.8
0.02
17099.9
0.69
89220.4
3.61
Source: Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of Secondary and Higher Education.
Questions:
In light of gender concerns and objectives:
what should be our attitude in light of persisting problems in
implementation of programmes? All programmes are based on ‘best
practices’ so there will always be some successes – does that mean we
continue to upscale despite uneven performance?
People are opting increasingly in favour of private schools – but girls often
remain in government schools - how should we interpret and respond to
this?
Should programmes like ‘mid day meals’ be seen as ‘educational’
programmes?