Download CS0447 Computer Organization & Assembly Language

CS/COE0447
Computer Organization &
Assembly Language
CHAPTER 1 Part 1
1
Five Computer Components
2
Embedded Computers
• Not directly observable
• Very widely used in many applications
• Examples:
3
Today’s Topics
•
•
•
•
Layered approach to computer design
Machine code example
Components of ISA
Computer implementations
–
–
–
–
–
–
Inside a PC
IC technology and its trends
Input/output devices
Main memory
Secondary storage
Network
• IC process overview
4
Layered Approach in Computer Design
Computer Architecture or
Instruction Set Architecture
Architecture
Microarchitecture
Logic gates
Transistors
5
Machine Code Example
swap:
muli
add
lw
lw
sw
sw
jr
$2, $5, 4
$2, $4, $2
$15, 0($2)
$16, 4($2)
$16, 0($2)
$15, 4($2)
$31
void swap(int v[], int k)
{
int temp;
temp = v[k];
v[k] = v[k+1];
v[k+1] = temp;
}
00000000101000010…
00000000000110000…
10001100011000100…
10001100111100100…
10101100111100100…
10101100011000100…
00000011111000000…
6
Components of ISA
• In most cases, a “programmer’s reference
manual” (PRM) will disclose the ISA of a
processor
• To understand an ISA, find in PRM
– Data types the processor supports
– Supported instructions and their definitions
– Registers (general-purpose & special purpose)
– Processor modes
– Exception mechanism
7
Inside a PC
• Integrated Circuits (ICs)
– CPU (Central Processing Unit), companion chipset, memory,
peripheral I/O chip (e.g., USB, IDE, IEEE1394, …)
• Printed Circuit (PC) boards
– Substrate for ICs and interconnection
– Distribution of clock, power supply
– Heat dissipation
• Hard disk, CD-RW (DVD-RW), (floppy disk)
• Power supply
– Converts line AC voltage to regulated DC low voltage levels
– GND, +/-12V, +/-5V, …
• Chassis
– Holds boards, power supply, and provides physical interface for
user and other systems
• Connectors and cables
8
Integrated Circuits
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Primarily crystaline silicon
1mm~25mm on a side
Feature size: 90nm ~ 130nm
100 ~ 1000M transistors
25 ~ 250M “logic gates”
3 ~ 10 metal “conductive” layers
CMOS (Complementary Metal
Oxide Semiconductor) technology
•
Package spreads chip-level signal
paths to board level
Provides heat dissipation
Ceramic or plastic with gold wires
8 ~ 1000 leads
Various form-factors and shapes
•
•
•
•
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Printed Circuit (PC) Boards
•
•
•
•
Fiberglass or ceramic
1 ~ 20 conductive layers
1 ~ 20 inch on a side
IC packages are mounted
and soldered on a board
10
Technology Trend (Processor Complexity)
2x transistors/chip every 1.5 years!
11
Memory Capacity Trend (DRAM)
size
1000000000
100000000
Bits
10000000
1000000
100000
10000
1000
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Year
1.4x/year or 2x every 2 years
8000x since 1980!
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Processor Performance Trend
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Intel P4 2000 MHz
(Fall 2001)
DEC Alpha
21264/600
1.54x/year
DEC Alpha 5/500
DEC Alpha 5/300
DEC Alpha 4/266
IBM POWER 100
87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97
13
Technology Advances
• Memory
– DRAM capacity: 2x / 2 years (since ’96)
– 64x size improvement in last decade
• Processor
– Speed (in terms of clock frequency): 2x / 1.5 years
(since ’85)
– 100x performance improvement in last decade
• Disk
– Capacity: 2x / 1 year (since ’97)
– 250x size improvement in last decade
14
Your PC After Graduation
• Processor speed
– 6~8GHz
• Memory capacity
– 4GB~8GB
• Disk capacity
– 1000GB or 1TB
• New units: Mega to Giga, Giga to Tera, (Tera to Peta,
Peta to Exa, Exa to Zetta, Zetta to Yotta)
• New, faster serial interfaces for various peripherals
15
My First PC (@college)
•
IBM PC AT
– Based on 80286 (80586 is Pentium-1)
•
Processor speed
– 20MHz (?) compared to 5,000MHz
•
Memory capacity
– 1MB compared to 4000MB
•
Disk capacity
– 40MB compared to 1000GB
•
No CD-ROM!
•
14 inch monitor (not flat!), VGA (640x480)
•
Wheel mouse
– 2 buttons
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Input Devices
• Accepts input from human (or from other machine)
• Desktop computers
–
–
–
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Keyboard
Mouse (touchpad)
Joystick
…
• Servers
– Terminals on network
• Cell phone – Embedded computers
– Keypad
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Input Devices, cont’d
• Mouse
– Wheel mouse (hard to find nowadays)
– Optical mouse
• Takes 1,500 “photo shots” of LED reflection to detect any movement
• Keyboard or keypad
– Not many changes so far
• Web camera
• Voice recognition
– Partly successful
• New input device?
18
Output Devices
• Passes information to human (or to other machine)
• Desktop computers
– Display (CRT or LCD)
– Sound
– …
• Servers
– Terminals on network
• Cell phone – Embedded computers
– Screen
– Sound
– Vibration
19
Output Devices, cont’d
• Display
– CRT to LCD
– LCD size from 10 inch to 24 inch
• Resolution from 640x480 to 1600x1200
• Sound
– Simple “tick” to theatre-like effects, 5.1
channel, etc.
20
Main memory
• PC/servers use “DRAM” (Dynamic RAM)
– SDRAM
– DDR SDRAM
– RDRAM (RAMBUS DRAM)
A typical SDRAM “module”
21
Main memory, cont’d
• Embedded computers use DRAM or
SRAM (or both) depending on applications
– On-chip SRAM (embedded SRAM)
– On-chip SDRAM (embedded SDRAM)
– SDRAM
– Mobile SDRAM (1.8V operation)
SRAM, SDRAM, FLASH all
in a same chip!
22
Storage
• Secondary storage (cf. main memory)
• Non-volatile
• Stores programs, user-saved data, etc.
• In PC/server domain, magnetic disk (harddisk) is usually used
• In embedded computers, “flash” memory
or “ROM” is usually employed
23
Storage, cont’d
5.25-inch floppy disk
1.2MB
USB Flash card
256MB
3.5-inch floppy disk
1.44MB
24
Storage, cont’d
25
Computer Networks
• Local Area Network (LAN)
– Within limited distance (e.g., in a building)
– Mostly based on Ethernet
– 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps, …
• Wide Area Network
– Connecting networks far apart
• At home,
– Modem: 14.4Kbps, 28.8Kbps, 33.6Kbps, 56Kbps
– Cable modem/DSL: several hundred Kbps ~ several Mbps
– Higher-speed DSL technologies
• Proliferation of wireless LAN (IEEE802.11)
– 1 ~ 100Mbps
26
(Simple) IC Process Overview
• Silicon ingot (silicon cylinder)
• (Blank) Wafers
• Various steps to build circuits on wafers
– Photomask process
– Chemical process
– Mechanical process
• “Wafer test” to sort out bad parts
• Tested “die”
• “Packaging” steps
– Wire bonding
– Material filling
– Marking
• “Chip test” to sort out bad parts
• Products
27
Testing Your Chip
• Function
– “The chip is working correctly” as intended
• Speed
– “The chip is running at 4 GHz” as intended
– “Speed binning”
• Power
– “The chip consumes 50 Watt at 4 GHz” as intended
• Reliability
– “The chip will be operational for 10 years” as written
on manual and box
28
Calculating Your Chip Cost
• Things to consider:
– Mask cost: we need 20 ~ 40 masks used to form
different patterns used in different process steps a.k.a.
Non-Recurring Engineering (NRE) cost
– Wafer cost
– Cost put in process steps
– Defect parts (we spend money producing defect
parts!)
– Any other overhead including marketing
• Can we calculate cost of each chip now?
• What happens if we adopt a new technology that
29
can build smaller transistors?
(Simple) IC Process Overview
• Silicon ingot (silicon cylinder)
• (Blank) Wafers
• Various steps to build circuits on wafers
– Photomask process
– Chemical process
– Mechanical process
• “Wafer test” to sort out bad parts
• Tested “die”
• “Packaging” steps
– Wire bonding
– Material filling
– Marking
• “Chip test” to sort out bad parts
• Products
30
Testing Your Chip
• Function
– “The chip is working correctly” as intended
• Speed
– “The chip is running at 4 GHz” as intended
– “Speed binning”
• Power
– “The chip consumes 50 Watt at 4 GHz” as intended
• Reliability
– “The chip will be operational for 10 years” as written
on manual and box
31
Calculating Your Chip Cost
• Things to consider:
– Mask cost: we need 20 ~ 40 masks used to form
different patterns used in different process steps a.k.a.
Non-Recurring Engineering (NRE) cost
– Wafer cost
– Cost put in process steps
– Defect parts (we spend money producing chips with
defects!)
– Any other overhead including marketing
• Can we calculate cost of each chip now?
• What happens if we adopt a new technology that
32
can build smaller transistors?
Packaging
mounting
wire bonding
packaging material filling &
marking
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