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Environmental Ethics We value things in two ways • Instrumental (utilitarian) value: valuing something for its benefits by using it – Animals are valuable because we can eat them • Intrinsic (inherent) value: valuing something for its own sake because it has a right to exist – Animals are valuable because they live their own lives • Things can have both instrumental and intrinsic value – But different people emphasize different values • How we value something affects how we treat it Environmental ethics • Environmental ethics = application of ethical standards to relationships between human and nonhuman entities • Hard to resolve: it depends on the person’s ethical standards and domain of ethical concern Should we save resources for future generations? Should humans drive other species to extinction? When is it OK to destroy a forest to create jobs? Is it OK for some communities to be exposed to more pollution? People suffer external costs External costs include water pollution, health problems, property damage, and harm to other organism Definitions • Moral Agents – Those who have the freedom and rational capacity to be responsible for choices – Those capable of moral reflection and decision. – Example: adult humans of sound mind • Infants and mentally infirm adults are NOT moral agents Definitions • Moral Standing: – If you have moral standing: • Your continued existence or welfare is valuable in itself (intrinsic value) • Your interests and well-being must be weighed when deciding what is permissible to do. – Example: humans of all kinds • Babies, children, adults, old people, etc. • Women, different races, different cultures Definitions • Moral Duties – That which is owed by moral agents to those with moral standing. – Example: It is wrong to kill our children because we have a moral duty toward them Philosophical Issue • Who or what has moral standing, and why? – Does the environment have moral standing? – Must look at criteria for moral standing • What moral duty do we (moral agents) have toward those with moral standing? – Different ethical positions suggest different moral duties. Yosemite National Park Ideas on Criteria for Moral Standing • Membership in the species Homo sapiens – Humans have a soul – Humans are moral agents • and are responsible for knowing right from wrong – Humans are intelligent – Humans have personhood • and self-consciousness – Humans have language Ideas on Criteria for Moral Standing • Sentience, the ability to feel pain – Therefore extend moral standing to animals Ideas on Criteria for Moral Standing • Being alive – Therefore extend moral standing to animals and plants: – All living things. Ideas on Criteria for Moral Standing • Being part of nature – Therefore extend moral standing to the • earth • ecosystems • rocks • rivers • plants animals • the entire natural world Ethical Positions • Anthropocentrism: Human centered morality – Only humans have intrinsic value and moral standing. – The rest of the natural world has instrumental value (use to humans). Anthropocentrism – We can best protect nature by looking out for human needs. • Ex: Ducks Unlimited preserves wetlands • Ex: Saving the rainforests will provide O2 and medicines for humans. – Problem: Would you blow up the world if you were the last human Ethical Positions • Sentio-centrism: Sentient-being centered morality – All and only sentient beings (animals that feel pain) have intrinsic value and moral standing. – The rest of the natural world has instrumental value. – Both humans and sentient animals have rights and/or interests that must be considered Ethical Positions • Biocentric Individualism: Life-centered morality – All and only living beings, specifically individual organisms (not species or ecosystems) have intrinsic value and moral standing. – Humans are not superior to other life forms nor privileged, and must respect the inherent worth of every organism – Humans should minimize harm and interference with nature: eat vegetarian since less land needs to be cultivated. Ethical Positions • Eco-centric Holism: ecosystem centered morality • Non-individuals (the earth as an interconnected ecosystem, species, natural processes) have moral standing or intrinsic value and are deserving of respect. • Individuals must be concerned about the whole community of life/nature, • Humans should strive to preserve ecological balance and stability. Patriarchal Dualisms • Greek, Roman, Hebrew: – Humans are separate from • and superior to nature – Human, mind, rationality, and man • are linked and superior – Nature, body, feelings, and woman • are linked, and inferior – Justifies domination by men over • Nature • Women Aristotle Ecofeminism • Rejects Patriarchal Dualisms – The domination of nature by men is wrong • is similar to and related to the domination of women by men. – Must break the pattern of "power over" relationships • will benefit both women and the natural world. Acid attack victims Feminism Deep Ecology • Humans are deeply connected with nature. • If humans identify with nature, then taking care of the natural world will become part of taking care of one's self. Bioregionalism • Lead a simple life with local production of food and other products by people that you know – Increases environmental awareness and caring – decreases exploitation of the environment and people. Three ethical perspectives • Anthropocentrism = only humans have intrinsic value • Biocentrism = some nonhuman life has intrinsic value • Ecocentrism = whole ecological systems have value – A holistic perspective that preserves connections The global value of all ecosystem services • The global economic value of all ecosystem services equals US$46 trillion/Year - More than double the GDP of all nations combined (Currently $18 Trillion/Year) • Protecting land gives 100 times more value than converting it to some other use The Story of Stuff