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Resources
Bellringers
Chapter Presentation
Transparencies
Standardized Test Prep
Visual Concepts
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Chapter 22
The Atmosphere
Table of Contents
Section 1 Characteristics of the Atmosphere
Section 2 Water and Wind
Section 3 Weather and Climate
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Objectives
• Identify the primary layers of the atmosphere.
• Describe how the atmosphere has evolved over
time.
• Describe how the oxygen-carbon dioxide cycle
works, and explain its importance to living organisms.
• Discuss the recent changes in Earth’s atmosphere.
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Bellringer
The phrase greenhouse effect refers to a process that
keeps Earth warm. The greenhouse effect describes
how Earth’s atmosphere traps energy from the sun.
Write a paragraph describing what you think life on
Earth would be like as a result of too much of the
greenhouse effect and also not enough of the
greenhouse effect. Include possible consequences for
plant and animal life as well as for weather and Earth
itself.
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Layers of the Atmosphere
• Earth’s atmosphere consists of a variety of gases.
• The two main gases are nitrogen and oxygen.
• Earth’s atmosphere has several layers.
•
•
•
•
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Layers of the Atmosphere
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Layers of the Atmosphere, continued
• Almost all weather occurs in the troposphere.
• The troposphere is the atmospheric layer closest
to Earth’s surface.
• The troposphere is the densest layer.
• Troposphere the lowest layer of the atmosphere, in
which temperature drops at a constant rate as
altitude increases
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Layers of the Atmosphere, continued
• The troposphere gets cooler with increasing
altitude.
• The temperature decreases by 6° C for every kilometer of
altitude.
• At the top of the troposphere the temperature stops
decreasing.
• The boundary where this occurs is called the
tropopause.
• The temperature at the tropopause is -55° C.
• The low temperature keeps water vapor from
leaving the troposphere.
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Layers of the Atmosphere, continued
• Cold air can become trapped beneath warm air.
• Temperature inversion the atmospheric condition in
which warm air traps cooler air near Earth’s surface.
• When a temperature inversion occurs, trapped air
can become thick with pollution.
• As long as a temperature inversion lasts, it is not
healthy for people to exercise outside.
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Temperature Inversion
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Layers of the Atmosphere, continued
• The stratosphere gets warmer with increasing
altitude.
• Stratosphere the upper layer of the atmosphere,
which lies immediately above the troposphere and
extends from 10 km to about 50 km above Earth’s
surface.
• At about 25 km, the temperature begins to
increase with altitude until it reaches about 0° C.
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Layers of the Atmosphere, continued
• The mesosphere and thermosphere exhibit extremes
of temperature.
• Mesosphere the coldest layer of the atmosphere,
between the stratosphere and the mesopause
• Temperatures in the mesosphere decrease with increasing
altitude, to about -80º C.
• Thermosphere the uppermost layer of the
atmosphere, in which temperature increases as
altitude increases
• Temperatures in the thermosphere are extremely hot,
absorbing intense solar radiation.
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Layers of the Atmosphere, continued
• The ionosphere is used in radio communication.
• Solar energy absorbed in the lower thermosphere
and upper mesosphere forms charged ions.
• This layer is often called the ionosphere.
• Electrons in the ionosphere reflect radio waves.
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Layers of the Atmosphere, continued
• The ionosphere is where auroras take place.
• Auroras are colorful displays of light formed when
energetic ions from the sun hit atoms and molecules
in the ionosphere, causing photons to be emitted.
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Changes in Earth’s Atmosphere
• When Earth began to solidify, about 4.4 billion years
ago, volcanic eruptions released gases.
• The process of releasing gases during volcanic
eruptions is called outgassing.
• The gases released by volcanoes did not include
oxygen.
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Changes in Earth’s Atmosphere, continued
• Photosynthetic plants contribute oxygen to the
atmosphere.
• Organisms evolved that used sunlight as an
energy source in a process called photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis produces oxygen as a waste
product.
• Gradually the oxygen content increased to what it
is today.
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Changes in Earth’s Atmosphere, continued
• Animals produce carbon dioxide necessary for
photosynthesis.
• Oxygen breathing organisms evolved and
released carbon dioxide as a waste product.
• The oxygen-carbon dioxide cycle maintains a
balance of atmospheric gases on Earth.
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Changes in Earth’s Atmosphere, continued
• Man-made chemicals can deplete the ozone layer.
• Ozone is formed when the sun’s ultraviolet radiation
strikes oxygen molecules.
• Ozone absorbs much of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet
radiation.
• Without the ozone layer, ultraviolet radiation would
damage living cells.
• Chlorofluorocarbons are chemicals that damage the
ozone layer, but are now banned in most countries.
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Ozone and Ecosystems
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Ozone and Ozone Holes
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Changes in Earth’s Atmosphere, continued
• The greenhouse effect keeps Earth warm.
• Greenhouse effect the warming of the surface and
lower atmosphere of Earth that occur when carbon
dioxide, water vapor, and other gases in the air
absorb and reradiate infrared radiation
• Greenhouse gases trap the sun’s heat and keep
Earth’s surface warm.
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Greenhouse Effect
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Greenhouse Effect
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Chapter 22
Section 1 Characteristics of the
Atmosphere
Changes in Earth’s Atmosphere, continued
• Increased levels of carbon dioxide may lead to global
warming.
• If too much heat is trapped the global temperature
will rise.
• Global warming is the gradual increase in temperature
on Earth due to an increase in greenhouse gases
• Global warming could cause problems, such as the
melting of ice caps, rising of ocean levels, and
drought in some areas.
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Objectives
• Describe the three phases of the water cycle.
• Explain how temperature and humidity are related.
• Identify various cloud types by their appearance and
the altitudes at which they typically occur.
• Use the concept of pressure gradients to explain how
winds are created, and explain how Earth’s rotation
affects their direction.
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Bellringer
Atmospheric pressure can be measured with a barometer. The
simplest barometer, illustrated below, is a glass tube containing
mercury with one end sealed and the other end open in a dish of
mercury. The height of the mercury in the tube is a measure of how
much the atmosphere is pressing on the mercury in the dish; the
greater the amount of atmospheric pressure, the higher the
mercury level reaches in the tube.
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Bellringer, continued
1. Which barometer is measuring the greater atmospheric
pressure? Explain your answer.
2. Atmospheric pressure increases as the altitude at which
the pressure is measured nears sea level. If all things are
equal except atmospheric pressure, which barometer is more
likely to be at the top of a mountain and which is more likely
to be at sea level?
3. Explain how you decided which barometer is more likely to
be at the top of a mountain.
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
The Water Cycle
• Water cycle the continuous movement of water from
the ocean to the atmosphere to the land and back to
the ocean
• Water is continuously being moved, primarily
between the oceans and the continents.
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
The Water Cycle, continued
• Evaporated water vapor condenses to form
precipitation.
• Evaporation occurs when solar energy heats water
molecules, and they rise as gaseous water vapor
• Transpiration the process by which plants release
water vapor into the air through their leaves
• Precipitation any form of water that falls to Earth’s
surface from the clouds
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Water Cycle
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
The Water Cycle, continued
• Air contains varying quantities of water vapor.
• Humidity the amount of water vapor in the air.
• Relative humidity is the actual amount of vapor in
the air compared to the maximum amount the air
could hold at that temperature.
• Air that has a relative humidity of 100% is said to be
saturated.
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Humidity
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
The Water Cycle, continued
• Warmer temperatures
evaporate more water.
• Warm air can hold
more water vapor than
cold air can, as
illustrated in the graph.
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
The Water Cycle, continued
• Water vapor becomes liquid at dew point.
• Dew point is the temperature at which air or a gas
begins to condense to a liquid
• When humidity is high, there are more molecules
of water in the air and it is easier to form liquid.
• The higher the humidity, the higher the dew point.
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Dew Point
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
The Water Cycle, continued
• Clouds form as warm, moist air rises.
• Clouds form when warm air rises and water vapor
condenses into tiny droplets of liquid as it cools.
• This process usually occurs in the troposphere.
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
The Water Cycle, continued
• Cloud names describe their shape and altitude.
• Clouds are named with combinations of three
root words:
• cirrus
• stratus
• cumulus
• Cirrus clouds are thin, wispy, and occur at high
altitudes
• Stratus clouds are sheetlike and layered
• Cumulus clouds are white and fluffy with
somewhat flat bottoms
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
The Water Cycle, continued
Cloud names reflect combined characteristics.
• Cirrostratus clouds are high, layered clouds that form
a thin white veil.
• Altostratus and altocumulus clouds are stratus and
cumulus clouds that occur at middle altitudes.
• Cumulonimbus clouds are towering rain clouds that
often produce thunderstorms.
• Nimbostratus clouds are large, gray clouds that often
produce steady precipitation.
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Cloud Types
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Formation of Clouds and Precipitation
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Air Pressure
• Barometric pressure the pressure due to the weight
of the atmosphere; also called air pressure or
atmospheric pressure
• Changes in barometric pressure often accompany
changes in the weather.
• Falling pressure may indicate that a large air mass
is leaving the area.
• Rising air pressure may mean that an air mass is
moving in.
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Atmospheric Pressure
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Air Pressure, continued
• Instruments used to measure air pressure are called
barometers.
• At sea level, the barometric pressure of air at 0 C
is around 760 mm of mercury.
• 760 mm of mercury is defined as 1 atmosphere
(1 atm) of pressure
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Wind
• Differences in pressure create winds.
• When air pressure varies from one place to
another, a pressure gradient exists.
• The air in a pressure gradient moves from areas
of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
• This movement of air from a high-pressure area to
a low-pressure area is called wind.
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Wind
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Wind, continued
• Earth’s rotation affects the direction of winds.
• Coriolis effect the curving of the path of a moving
object from an otherwise straight path due to Earth’s
rotation.
• Points at different latitudes on Earth’s surface move at
different speeds.
• Earth goes through a full rotation in 24 hours.
• Points on the equator travel the Earth’s full
circumference in 24 hours.
• Points closer to the poles do not travel as far.
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Coriolis Effect
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Wind, continued
• Predictable air circulation forms wind patterns.
• Winds in the Northern Hemisphere curve
clockwise.
• Winds in the Southern Hemisphere curve
counterclockwise.
• The resulting patterns are very regular, and have
been named by meteorologists.
• Polar easterlies
• Westerlies
• Northeast trade winds
• Southeast trade winds
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Wind, continued
• Global wind patterns form circulation cells.
• Because temperatures closer to the equator tend
to be warmer, air traveling toward the equator
tends to rise.
• Warm rising air tends to move toward the poles.
• As air moves closer to the poles it cools and sinks.
• Three loops of rising warm air and sinking cold are
can be found in each hemisphere
• These loops are called cells.
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Chapter 22
Section 2 Water and Wind
Global Winds and Surface Currents
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Objectives
• Describe the formation of cold fronts and warm
fronts.
• Describe various severe weather situations,
including thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes.
• Distinguish between climate and weather.
• Identify factors that affect Earth’s climate.
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Bellringer
1. The longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere
occurs on June 21, when the Northern Hemisphere gets the
most sunlight. Do you think this explains why the summer
season contains the hottest months of the year in the
Northern Hemisphere? Explain your answer.
2. Climate is the average weather of a location over a period
of many years. Describe the climate of the area where you
live by generalizing the weather of each season for the past
5 years.
3. Because of their size, mountains can have a profound
effect on the climate of an area. Explain how you think
mountains affect the weather.
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Fronts and Severe Weather
• Meteorologists predict weather by tracking the
movement of air pockets called air masses.
• Air mass a large body of air where temperature and
moisture content are similar throughout
• Interactions between air masses have predictable
effects on the weather in a given location.
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Fronts and Severe Weather, continued
• Front the boundary between air masses of different
densities and usually different temperatures
• Clouds, rain, and sometime snow can occur at
fronts.
• The three types of fronts are:
• warm front
• cold front
• stationary front
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Types of Fronts
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Fronts and Severe Weather, continued
• Lightning is a discharge of atmospheric electrical
energy.
• Water droplets and ice crystals in thunderclouds
build up electrical charges.
• Sparks, called lightning, jump between clouds or
between clouds and Earth to equalize the charge.
• Lightning superheats the air so fast that the air
expands faster than the speed of sound. The
shockwave created is thunder.
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Lightning and Thunder
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Fronts and Severe Weather, continued
• Tornadoes are funnels of high-speed wind.
• Tornado winds are the most violent winds on
Earth, with speeds up to 500 km/h.
• Tornadoes typically form along a front between
cool, dry air and warm, humid air.
• Tornadoes are fast moving and unpredictable.
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Tornado
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Fronts and Severe Weather, continued
• Hurricanes are large storm systems.
• Hurricanes are large circulating masses of clouds, wind, and
rain with diameters of about 600 km.
• Hurricanes are powered by energy released as water vapor
condenses to form clouds.
• Hurricanes rotate around a center called the eye.
• The most violent winds in a hurricane are those
surrounding the eye. The eye is usually calm.
• Hurricane winds can reach speeds greater than 250
km/h .
• Hurricanes weaken and die as they move over land
or cooler water.
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Formation of a Hurricane
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Climate
• Climate the average weather conditions in an area
over a long period of time.
• Temperatures tend to be higher close to the equator.
• Sunlight strikes the earth more directly close to the
equator.
• The suns rays are less concentrated at the poles,
and do not warm the atmosphere as much.
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Climate, continued
• Earth’s tilt and rotation account for our seasons.
• When the North Pole is tilted toward the sun, the
Northern Hemisphere experiences summer.
• When the South Pole is tilted toward the sun, the
Southern Hemisphere experience summer.
• Summer solstice the longest day of the year
• Winter solstice the shortest day of the year
• Vernal equinox the point in the spring when the day
and night are equal length
• Autumnal equinox the point in the fall when the day
and night are equal length
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Climate, continued
• Earth’s surface features affect climate.
• Topography the configuration of a land surface,
including its relief
• Variations in topography affect the climate of a
region, for example:
• Mountains can trap moisture on one side
• Broad flat surfaces allow winds to reach
great speeds
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Climate, continued
• Global climate changes over time.
• Many factors produce changes in Earth’s climate,
such as:
• movement of continents
• slight changes in Earth’s tilt
• volcanic eruptions
• changes in the greenhouse effect
• Earth’s climate is likely to continue changing over the
millennia to come.
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Chapter 22
Section 3 Weather and Climate
Concept
Mapping
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Chapter 22
Standardized Test Prep
Understanding Concepts
1. During a temperature inversion, which of these can
trap polluted air close to the ground?
A.
B.
C.
D.
acid rain
ocean breezes
thunder clouds
warm air layer
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Chapter 22
Standardized Test Prep
Understanding Concepts, continued
1. During a temperature inversion, which of these can
trap polluted air close to the ground?
A.
B.
C.
D.
acid rain
ocean breezes
thunder clouds
warm air layer
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Chapter 22
Standardized Test Prep
Understanding Concepts, continued
2. What is the main substance added to the
atmosphere by the combustion of fossil fuels that
may contribute to global warming?
F.
G.
H.
I.
carbon dioxide
CFCs
oxygen
petroleum
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Chapter 22
Standardized Test Prep
Understanding Concepts, continued
2. What is the main substance added to the
atmosphere by the combustion of fossil fuels that
may contribute to global warming?
F.
G.
H.
I.
carbon dioxide
CFCs
oxygen
petroleum
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Chapter 22
Standardized Test Prep
Understanding Concepts, continued
3. What causes the seasonal variations in climate that
occur on most of the Earth’s surface?
A. the variations in distance from the sun
B. the difference in the amount of solar energy
striking the equator and the poles
C. the variations in solar energy due to the tilt of
Earth’s axis relative to the orbital plane
D. the redistribution of energy around the surface of
Earth by ocean currents and winds
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Chapter 22
Standardized Test Prep
Understanding Concepts, continued
3. What causes the seasonal variations in climate that
occur on most of the Earth’s surface?
A. the variations in distance from the sun
B. the difference in the amount of solar energy
striking the equator and the poles
C. the variations in solar energy due to the tilt of
Earth’s axis relative to the orbital plane
D. the redistribution of energy around the surface of
Earth by ocean currents and winds
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Chapter 22
Standardized Test Prep
Understanding Concepts, continued
4. Even though animals use oxygen in the atmosphere,
the amount of oxygen available remains constant.
Analyze how the carbon dioxide-oxygen cycle
maintains the ratio of gases needed for life to exist
on Earth.
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Chapter 22
Standardized Test Prep
Understanding Concepts, continued
4. Even though animals use oxygen in the atmosphere,
the amount of oxygen available remains constant.
Analyze how the carbon dioxide-oxygen cycle
maintains the ratio of gases needed for life to exist
on Earth.
Answer: Plants constantly remove carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere and add oxygen to the atmosphere
by photosynthesis. Animals remove oxygen and add
carbon dioxide by respiration.
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Chapter 22
Standardized Test Prep
Understanding Concepts, continued
5. In general, climates are cooler near the poles and
warmer near the equator. Given this observation,
why are some mountains near the equator covered
with snow year-round?
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Chapter 22
Standardized Test Prep
Understanding Concepts, continued
5. In general, climates are cooler near the poles and
warmer near the equator. Given this observation,
why are some mountains near the equator covered
with snow year-round?
Answer: Higher altitudes are cooler, even at the
equator, because the air is not as dense, so it does
not hold as much heat.
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Chapter 22
Standardized Test Prep
Reading Skills
The climate and weather inside a city are often very different from
that of surrounding rural areas. Buildings and pavement absorb
more energy from the sun, and activities such as transportation and
industry produce additional heat. The temperature in a city can be
as much as 10°C higher than the temperature outside of the city.
This heat contributes to increased smog and changes precipitation
patterns. As people have become aware of these “heat islands,”
they are taking measures to reduce the heat island effect, such as
using light colored roofs to reflect heat, and planting trees and other
plants to absorb solar energy.
6. How could planting gardens on the roofs of buildings in cities
help reduce the effect of heat islands?
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Chapter 22
Standardized Test Prep
Reading Skills, continued
6. [See previous slide for question.]
Answer: Roof plants can help reduce heat by
decreasing the surfaces that absorb heat and by
absorbing solar energy, converting it into plant
growth.
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Chapter 22
Standardized Test Prep
Interpreting Graphics
7. Which of the following results from the situation
shown in the illustration?
F. coastal rains as
warm air rises
G. inland rains as
cool air descends
H. rain on both sides
of the mountain
I. dry climate on both
sides of the mountain
Chapter menu
Resources
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Chapter 22
Standardized Test Prep
Interpreting Graphics, continued
7. Which of the following results from the situation
shown in the illustration?
F. coastal rains as
warm air rises
G. inland rains as
cool air descends
H. rain on both sides
of the mountain
I. dry climate on both
sides of the mountain
Chapter menu
Resources
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.