Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Department of Biology and Earth Science Senior Research Symposium April 15, 2015 ABSTRACTS OF SENIOR RESEARCH PROJECTS (In Alphabetical Order) Abena F. Agyepong The Examination of Bacteria and Triclosan Resistance in Big Walnut Creek Triclosan is a prevalent antibacterial compound that is found primarily in products such as soaps, dental care, cosmetics, deodorant, and other personal care products. However, triclosan is one of the most widely used biocides and it displays a cross-resistance to other antibiotics. Not only does triclosan pose a risk to humans, it is also a ubiquitous pollutant that is detected at high concentrations in all types of environments such as aquatic environments and soils. Because triclosan is so commonly used in a variety of products, it is fully retained in wastewater treatment plants. It then makes its entrance into the environment either through treated or effluent wastewater, raw influent directly discharged by sewage overflows or absorption to sludge or biosolids. Generally, high levels of triclosan have been shown in wastewater treatment plant influents in the United States, Europe, and Asia. The aim of this project is to determine the percentage of triclosan resistant bacteria present in Big Walnut Creek and determine the biodiversity of the resistant bacteria. According to data that was collected in duplicate at Big Walnut, 65.10% of bacteria were resistant. This number was the highest out of all of the sites that were observed. Polymerase Chain Reaction was used to amplify the 16S ribosomal RNA gene and products were verified by gel electrophoresis. Metagenomic data showed the biodiversity of all of the bacteria in Big Walnut Creek. The next step is sequencing the triclosan resistant bacteria in order to determine their biodiversity as well as reveal new species that may be present in Big Walnut Creek. Bridget N. Bickers Characterization of Suspected Cyclic di-GMP Metabolizing Genes in Streptomyces scabies Streptomyces scabies is a bacterial plant pathogen responsible for a condition known as common scab in potatoes and other tuber crops. Aerial hyphae and spore development have been shown to be regulated by cyclic di-GMP (c-diGMP) signaling in the non-pathogenic species Streptomyces coelicolor and 1 Streptomyces venezuelae. The second messenger c-di-GMP is ubiquitous among bacteria and is connected to many functions such as: motility, virulence, and biofilm formation, but the effects of c-di-GMP signaling in other streptomycetes are unknown. The purpose of this study is to elucidate the function of the suspected S. scabies c-di-GMP phosphodiesterase genes SCAB11501 and SCAB27241 through the construction of deletion mutants. The effects these genes have on morphology, development, and virulence are of particular interest in this study. Successful S. scabies deletion mutants for SCAB27241 have been evaluated macro- and microscopically for differences in morphology between the mutants and wild type. Potato infection assays were performed in order to compare the mutant’s pathogenicity to that of the wild type. These phosphodiesterase genes may represent targets for antimicrobial agents that combat S. scabies infection and that of other related, prevalent agricultural pests. Sarah A. Bousfiha HIV Co-infection: Syphilis and Hepatitis C Background: Despite the progress made in antiretroviral medications for AIDS prevention and early HIV infection, challenges are still present in cases of HIV co-infection with other diseases, including syphilis and hepatitis C. Reasons of HIV-syphilis and HIV-hepatitis co-infection were studied, as well as how coinfection causes diagnoses and treatment to be difficult in these cases. The purpose of this literature review is to address questions regarding co-infection, focusing specifically on HIV with neurosyphilis, and HIV with hepatitis C. Methods: Internet databases and peer reviewed journal articles were utilized to gather information on co-infection, based on year of publication and relevancy to the topic. Results: Rates of syphilis are increasing in the United States, and HIV co-infection is more common in cases of neurosyphilis. Hepatitis C cases have decreased in the United States, however no vaccine is yet available to treat the virus, and can lead to chronic infection. HIV-syphilis co-infection occurs largely due to unprotected sex with infected individuals, and is highly represented in the MSM population. HIV-hepatitis C co-infection is unlikely due to sexual activity, and occurs in risk factor populations including intravenous drug users and individuals receiving blood transfusion. Diagnosis in co-infection in general is due to asymptomatic presence of infection, as well as similar symptoms among different diseases and errors in testing. In both HIV-syphilis co-infection and HIVhepatitis C co-infection, treatment plans must take into account the stage and progression of infection. Conclusion: Early diagnosis in both HIV-syphilis and HIV-hepatitis C cases is of extreme importance, and the presence of HIV may cause diagnosis and treatment to be rather conflicting. Individuals categorized into risk factors for infection should be routinely tested and provided information on sexually transmitted diseases. Efforts to provide available screening for patients should be implemented in order to decrease rates of disease. 2 Michael G. Brovarenko Side Effects of Androgenic Anabolic Steroid Abuse in Athletes Androgenic anabolic steroids (AAS) can cause a variety of side effects when abused by athletes. Despite their reputation as harmful substances, AAS were first developed for the beneficial purpose of increasing skeletal muscle mass and to increase development of male sex characteristics. Additionally, AAS can be clinically applied in the treatment of HIV-related muscle wasting, serious burn injuries, post-surgical trauma, neuromuscular disorders, malnutrition due to alcoholic cirrhosis of the liver, Duchenne's or Becker's muscular dystrophy, and age-related muscle loss (Turillazzi E, et al. 2011). Professional athletes such as Lance Armstrong have admitted to using AAS, claiming that it is impossible to win events in professional sports without using steroids. Steroid abuse is a good topic to perform a literature review on because it has been an issue in sports for many years. This literature review was conducted to learn the state of knowledge about the negative effects of AAS. Information was gathered by collecting articles though the EBSCO search database on the website of the Courtright Memorial Library at Otterbein University. From the 40 peer-reviewed research articles obtained, 20 peer-reviewed articles were selected to include in this literature review. Risk factors for AAS abuse are teenage preoccupation with body image, being a male weightlifter with a poor childhood relationship with their father, and having conduct disorder (Pope Jr. H, et al. 2012). Most fatal instances of AAS abuse are caused by cardiac events such as heart attacks, coronary diseases, and ventricular arrhythmias (Achar S, et al. 2010). Less common side effects seen in long term- high dose AAS abusers are liver tumors -- typically in people suffering from other liver diseases (Hardt A, et al. 2012). The conclusion of this literature review is that steroids can cause psychiatric disorders, shutdown of vital organs in addition to the heart, withdrawal symptoms, and even sudden death. Recent studies of AAS use suggest that AAS abuse is as harmful today as in 1975 when scientific data on AAS use was first collected. Rebecca A. Carter Winter Road Salt Incursions on Alum Creek and its Watershed Analysis Road salt is a concern for many states in the northern United States. During winter storms, road salt is applied to roads in conjunction with plowing. Extended periods of below freezing weather usually results in significant salt volumes being applied to roads, and with limited melting, the salt accumulates. When snowmelt occurs, it generates run-off which dissolves the salt and transports it to both surface and groundwater. Studies show that water quality, aquatic organisms, and terrestrial organisms are adversely affected by the excess salt. Previous research on groundwater, and to a lesser extent surface water, uses chlorine and bromine ratios to identify the source of road salt from the mineral halite. This study focuses in on identifying the potential source of elevated dissolved solids in Alum Creek in Westerville Ohio following snowmelt events. Samples of Alum 3 Creek water were collected by the Westerville Water Treatment Plant personnel from the raw water stream following snowmelt events with elevated TDS concentrations. The samples were analyzed by a commercial laboratory for EPA methods 200.7 for sodium, iron, and calcium and 300.0 for chlorine and bromine. Chloride and bromide ratios after snowmelt ranged from 311.36 to 16166, and averaged 4095 through the 2014 and 2015 winters. Normalized readings for the summer of 2014 were between 0 and 817.50. Results of this study show inconsistent chlorine and bromine ratios due to the low concentrations in surface water but sodium and chlorine concentrations are consistent with halite sources. Although salt may not be the only factor behind the higher TDS reading, areas of extensive development, farming, and natural salt formations can contribute. A map of the Alum Creek watershed determined areas of high run-off potential that contribute road salt into Alum Creek. Leigh A. K. Dardio Cyanotoxins and their Significance to Humans Cyanobacteria are bloom-forming microorganisms commonly known as “bluegreen algae.” These species are widely dispersed and adapted to even very extreme environments. They are especially significant to humans due to their ability to produce a number of cyanotoxins which potentially pose serious health effects for humans and aquatic ecosystems. This review aims to cover the general knowledge of the effects of three common types of cyanotoxins (microcystin, cylindrospermopsin, and anatoxin-a), the effects of these in humans, factors stimulating the proliferation of cyanobacterial producers, and future conditions most likely to encourage the continued dispersal of these species. A recent case of substantial cyanobacterial bloom formation and cyanotoxin production in Ohio is also examined as an example of an ecosystem which is highly promotional of these activities. Brianna N. Diehl Improving Outcomes and Reducing Relapse for Patients Undergoing Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplants This literature review explores clinical trials concerning allogeneic stem cell transplants. The variables included in this review are different HLA match situations/graft procedures, and different conditioning regimens such as combination drug therapies, TBI, and T-cell depletion. Efficacy and viability of these variables are measured by statistical analysis for reduced relapse, lowering the incidence of GVHD/OIs, and positive outcomes such as survival rates. Both strengths and weaknesses in research studies, as well as areas of the literature that can be expanded upon are analyzed in detail. For each patient with a given set of risk factors (including age, severity of disease, and level of remission achieved before transplantation) there is a near perfect regimen and transplant 4 option available. Yet, the overwhelming issue is the lack of conducive research supporting any one regimen for any one type of patient. In this review, a number of current and relevant graft manipulations and conditioning regimens are discussed. A wide gap exists between the large number of research done on combination drug/TBI regimens and the small amount focused on manipulating the actual stem cell graft. The most potential for increasing outcomes and reducing relapse for patients with hematological diseases is by researching more specific techniques of HLA-typing and finding new ways to adapt grafts at the molecular level. Joel N. Donahue Characterization of a Putative Cyclic di-GMP Gene in Streptomyces coelicolor Streptomyces coelicolor is a Gram-positive, non-pathogenic bacterium that is important in the production of antibiotics. SCO5511 is a gene that encodes an EAL and GGDEF domain protein in this organism. EAL and GGDEF domains are associated with phosphodiesterase activity and cyclic di-GMP production, respectively. Cyclic di-GMP is a second messenger that is associated with virulence, motility, and biofilm formation in a variety of bacteria. Preliminary data from our lab shows that SCO5511 influences development in S. coelicolor. Data accumulated in the bioinformatics portion of the project compares orthologous genes from other Streptomyces species to that of S. coelicolor SCO5511 and provides evidence that this protein has diguanylate cyclase activity, producing cyclic di-GMP. Data obtained through attachment assays shows that the SCO5511 mutant produces effective surface-attached communities of bacteria called biofilms, as would be expected for a diguanylate cyclase mutant. Bailey K. Dye Toxicity of Leaf Extract of Acer Spp. on Equine Erythrocytes Red maple toxicosis is a phenomenon that occurs in equines after the consumption of dried or wilted red maple (Acer rubrum L.) leaves. Within the erythrocytes, it causes hemolysis, methemoglobinemia, and Heinz body development. The toxic agent of red maple leaves has not yet been identified; however, the development of hemolytic anemia and methemoglobinemia in equines after ingestion of the leaves, suggests that the toxin is acting as a strong oxidant. Some studies have noted that not only are wilted red maples leaves toxic to equines, but that wilted leaves of other maple species may also be toxic. Therefore, the objective of this research was to evaluate the toxic effects of dried samples of A. rubrum, as well as thirteen other species within the genus Acer, on the hemolysis of equine erythrocytes. Two-year old saplings were evaluated in greenhouse and field experiments of 5 and 3 replicates, respectively. Leaves were harvested and dried throughout two growing seasons. The leaf material 5 was suspended in water (0.05 g material/500 μl water) and incubated with equine blood taken from the horses housed at the Austin E. Knowlton Equine Center for two and three hours in 1.5 ml microfuge tubes for determination of percentage hemolysis and percentage methemoglobin, respectively. Relative toxicities of species were determined spectrophotometrically based on percentage hemolysis of erythrocytes and percentage methemoglobin formation. Acer species differed significantly for hemolysis and methmoglobin production. In the greenhouse replications, the red×silver hybrid maple exhibited the largest amount of hemolysis (2 to 3 times that of the control), as well as a high level of methemoglobin formation (~69%). In contrast, Norway maple caused little hemolysis and methemoglobin. The results of this study show toxicity to equine erythrocytes may occur in multiple species throughout the Acer genus, indicating that the toxic component may be an ancestral trait that has been lost in some taxa. Jared B. Ellenbogen Recovery Potential of the Mussel Communities in the Lower Section of Big Walnut Creek Since the enactment of the 1977 Clean Water Act, biologists have created numerous multimetric assessment tools to evaluate the biological integrity of water resources, using biological criteria. The integrity of Big Walnut Creek, Ohio, has been in flux since the 1955 construction of Hoover Dam, and while current water quality is high, mussel communities in the creek have yet to recover to historical levels. This study sought to determine the cause of the decline in the mussels in the lower section of the creek below the dam. Historical creek data, including a fish-based index of biotic integrity (f-IBI), invertebrate community index (ICI), qualitative habitat evaluation index (QHEI) and modified index of well-being (MIWB), were compared to a recent mussel-IBI for the creek. These data were compared to urbanization data (i.e. percent plant cover) describing land use in 1 km2 sample regions around each biometric data collection site. Data were analyzed using linear region and student t-tests to understand any correlative relationships with the status of mussel communities. Mussel-IBI data were compared to percent land developed (r2=0.225, p>0.01), percent plant cover (r2=0.1 p>0.01), road density (r2=0.007, p>0.01), census tract data as a measure of population density (r2=0.003, p>0.01), riparian zone width (r2=0.107, p>0.01) and creek width (r2=0.001, p>0.01). Ohio EPA biometric data were compared to percent plant cover data: fIBI (r2=0.185, p>0.01), MIWB (r2=0.004, p>0.01), ICI (r2=0.028, p>0.01) and QHEI (r2=0.265, p>0.01). No significant correlations were found between urbanization and integrity, suggesting that land use does not directly affect the lower section of Big Walnut Creek. Therefore, it is possible (pending future research) that the mussel communities could recover in time, similar to the fish and invertebrate communities in the creek. 6 Conor G. Holland Does Food Availability Influence Metabolic Rate? Animals show developmental plasticity in response to various environmental changes. We observed physiological and morphological responses when Xenopus laevis tadpoles were exposed to low, medium, and high food levels. We hypothesized that tadpoles from low food treatments would downregulate metabolic rate, increase intestine length, and have smaller livers in comparison to tadpoles from higher food treatments. We raised tadpoles at 150, 300, and 600 mg per week of Sera Micron until tadpoles reach 3.2-3.5cm in length. Tadpoles were fasted for 24 hours and their metabolic rate was measured by recording changes in oxygen by Witrox respirometry equipment. When controlling for body mass and length, tadpoles raised in low food tanks had lower metabolic rates than tadpoles reared at medium and high food levels. There was no significant difference in intestine length and we were unable to detect differences in liver size. The changes in energy allocation show that Xenopus tadpoles respond to food shortage by down regulating their metabolic rate. We were unable to definitively identify the mechanism for this response, but differences in liver size could play a role. Other mechanism that should be examined include fat body reserves, heart mass, muscle mass, and the number of mitochondria. Zebulon I. Martin Are Threespot Damselfish Helping or Hurting the Possible Resurgence of Acropora Corals? There is a growing concern about decreased global biodiversity in general and especially the decline of frame building acroporid species of Caribbean coral reefs. This study examines a possible refugia for Acropora cervicornis coral in the back-reef area of Ambergris Caye, Belize commonly referred to as Coral Gardens. Our goal was to understand the carbonate budget and ecosystem dynamics of this successful reef with emphasis on the role of herbivorous damselfish and urchins. Benthic survey data from photo-quadrats along six transects was supplemented with counts of urchins in various size classes. The number and species of damselfish and a count of damselfish chimney scars was also collected. The data indicates a positive correlation between the density of Stegastes planifrons and the abundance of urchins suggesting that damselfish do not reduce the number of urchins in their territories as previously reported. The impact of damselfish on coral growth was quantified by counting chimney scars in each quadrat. Scars occurred primarily in clumps and these were concentrated on the edges of the patch reefs. Scarring did not correlate with damselfish abundance. Our findings suggest that Threespot Damselfish probably have little positive impact on the carbonate budget via the removal of scraping urchins, but may potentially negatively impact coral growth, particularly at the edges of the patches. This negative impact is probably minimal in large healthy 7 patches, such as those examined in this study, but may be more significant in the fragmented and isolated colonies that are now the norm in the Caribbean. Kristen R. McCann A Review of Current Research on Acer rubrum and Equine Red Maple Leaf Toxicosis Red maple leaf toxicosis is a debilitating syndrome caused by ingestion of red maple leaves (Acer rubrum) by equine species. It was first reported in the literature in the early 1980's. Red maple leaf toxicosis is characterized by the weakening of the erythrocyte cell walls and by changes in the hemoglobin which alter the oxygen affinity. This can result in the death of 60 to 65% of the horses that ingest 1.5 g of dried leaves per kg body weight. Currently, the identity of the toxin is unknown but some researchers hypothesize that the oxidant pyrogallol is involved in the process of erythrocyte damage. This review of red maple toxicosis will explore and discuss the nature of the toxin, as well as current procedures of diagnosis and prevention of the syndrome. Specifically, the potential role of antioxidants vitamin C and E in prevention and remediation will be addressed. Rebecca R. McGinnis Do Geriatric Hip Fracture Patients Admitted to an Orthopedic Specialty Hospital Fare Better than those Admitted to a General Hospital? The choice of hospital is a very important decision to make especially when there is a major surgery occurring. Quality of care and success rates vary across hospitals and the consumer should be informed before they undergo surgery. Hip replacement is done for many reasons including osteoarthritis and fracture. Total hip replacement surgery has become very common practice in every hospital. A statistical analysis of surgery outcomes was taken between Crystal Clinic Orthopedic Center and Akron City Hospital and allows for a more educated reformation of surgical procedure between the two hospitals. There was a statistically significant difference ( p value < 0.05) shown on two-tailed T test for 4 of the 5 outcomes studied (CCOC n=534 and ACH n=142): 30 day mortality, physical therapy time, time until surgery, and operation time. In all of these outcomes, Crystal Clinic Orthopedic Center performed better than Akron City Hospital. The fifth outcome studied, in house death, showed no significant difference between the two hospitals. Confounding the results is the fact that there was also a statistically significant difference between the average ages of the patients at the two hospitals, with the patients operated on at Akron City Hospital being significantly older than those operated on at CCOC. Pairwise tests were then run to account for the age and sample size differences. In the pairwise tests, operating time, time to operating room and average physical therapy all still showed a statistically significant difference. This study shows that there is a difference between the attention to the patient provided at the two 8 hospitals, but care must be used when generalizing the results due to both the different sample sizes and average patient ages at the two hospitals studied. Brice A. Mitchell Trans-species transmission and zoonotic potential of Chronic Wasting Disease Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a form of prion disease that affects members of the North American cervid population, including white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni), and moose (Alces alces shirasi). After the link was discovered between bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle and variant Creutzfeld-Jakob disease (vCJD) in humans through exposure to BSE-contaminated meat, the transmission of CWD has been increasingly studied. In lab settings, variants of CWD have been able to cross the species barrier and infect various species of North American rodents, domestic cats, and primates. The susceptibility of primates to CWD infection has caused concern for the potential of zoonotic spread. While there are no confirmed cases of the cervidized prion disease causing disease in humans, assessment of the possibility of CWD crossing the species barrier is of major importance as exposure to the infectious prion through both consumption of venison and interaction with areas of contamination have been on the rise within the past decade. This literature review investigates the potential of chronic wasting disease to cross the cervid-human species barrier and become zoonotic. Samantha L. Perry The stability of individual vocal signatures over time in adult male budgerigars Melopsittacus undulatus Individual recognition is when an animal associates a single individual with its specific characteristics and markers, allowing them to monitor and improve social interactions. Individual recognition can occur acoustically, this allows animals to identify an individual and information about them from the individual signatures within their vocalizations. Vocal learning is an animals’ ability to change its vocalizations based on exposure and perception of sounds they hear. Budgerigars are open-ended vocal learners, which means that they are capable of altering vocalizations and learning new calls throughout their life. The objective of this project was to determine if individual signatures within different call types are stable over time. We also determined if altering social setting effects stability of the parameters we analyzed. 9 Ellen A. Proctor Communication’s Influence on Social Bonds Formed by Chimpanzees Communication plays a significant role in developing and maintaining strong social bonds within conspecific groups in nonhuman primates. Within chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, individuals develop relationships to acquire adaptive benefits including high social status, grooming, stress reduction, and reproduction. Previous research has shown that aggressive and affiliative behavior has had the most significant influence on building and maintaining social bonds formed by chimpanzees. Individuals utilize forms of mutual exchange, like interchange or reciprocity, in order to build social relationships. Similarly, studies show that both gestural and verbal communication also play roles in forming social relationships. This is due to chimpanzees often initiating social interactions by using pant hoot calls or pointing and gaze orientation, which lead to everyday behavioral interactions and therefore the formation of bonds. This literature review further investigates the influences that various forms of communication have on the development of social bonds within chimpanzee groups. Paige L. Regrut A Review of the Costs of Caudal Autotomy and Factors that Influence the Rate of Tail Regeneration Caudal autotomy is the voluntary release of an organism’s tail to escape predation. The release of the tail surprises the predator, causing the predator to drop the organism during an attack. Caudal autotomy is used by amphibians, (salamanders), reptiles (lizards) and mammals (mice). This literature review will explore caudal autotomy, the organisms who use caudal autotomy, its survival and reproductive costs, the factors that influence the frequency of caudal autotomy and the rate of tail regeneration. Survival costs include increased risk of predation, decreased growth rate and decreased locomotive speeds. Reproductive costs include smaller clutch sizes because fat reserves are lost when the tail is dropped. The rate of tail regeneration and the ability of the organism to escape predation is influenced by the intensity and efficiency of predators, conspecific crowding, and the number of successful attacks by a predator. The efficiency of the predators in an area decreases the success of caudal autotomy; an area with low efficiency predators has high success rates of caudal autotomy. The intensity of predation can increase the frequency of tail autotomy and decrease the rate of tail regeneration. 10 Madeline A. Rohl The Effect of Red Maple Leaf Toxicosis on Reduced Glutathione Levels in Equine Erythrocytes In Vitro Red maple leaf toxicosis is an equine blood disorder resulting from the consumption of wilted red maple (Acer rubrum L.) leaves by horses. Compounds within the leaves of red maple have oxidative effects on equine erythrocytes and can cause hemolysis of erythrocytes, the conversion of hemoglobin to methemoglobin, and the production of Heinz bodies. Reduced glutathione is important in the protection of equine erythrocytes from these oxidative events; however, in the presence of red maple toxin, glutathione is rapidly oxidized and is unavailable. The objective this study is to determine whether the presence of vitamin C alters levels of reduced glutathione for equine erythrocytes in vitro. Equine erythrocytes were sampled and treated with red maple leaf extract alone and in combination with vitamin C. Erythrocyte suspensions were then measured for concentration of reduced glutathione with the use of spectrophotometry. The results show a difference between reduced glutathione levels in control blood samples and blood samples treated with extract from wilted red maple leaves. Limited data shows an effect of vitamin C on samples with and without red maple leaf extract. These results are supported by other studies where oxidative damage in erythrocytes of other species causes decreased reduced glutathione concentration. Kristen H. Schmid The Effect of MHC Diversity on Mate Choice in Captive African Penguins (Spheniscus demersus) Background: The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is highly polymorphic, functioning to maintain a proper immune system within all vertebrates. High diversity within exon 2 of the MHC class II gene has been linked to increases in both parasite resistance and overall fitness. Organisms mate with individuals who will provide them with a high diversity of MHC class II alleles. The role MHC diversity plays in mating of African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) has recently been a topic of debate due to their endangered species status. The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of MHC class II diversity on female mate choice within a captive population of African penguins at Mystic Aquarium. Methods: DNA was extracted from penguin blood samples. Exon 2 of the MHC class II gene was amplified through PCR. The results were run on a DGGE, as well as sequenced. The sequences were analyzed to determine individual MHC alleles and compare the allelic combinations within the population. The MHC alleles of mating pairs and parent-offspring relationships were analyzed. Results: Of the twenty-eight penguins sampled, nine were homozygous, while nineteen were heterozygous. Three alleles were identified within this population, Spde001, Spde002, and Spde003. The allelic combinations produced four genotypes: nine Spde001/Spde001, three Spde001/Spde002, eleven 11 Spde001/Spde003, and five Spde002/Spde003. A lineage map connecting mating pairs and offspring was constructed from the genotypes. Discussion: The Mystic Aquarium population showed reasonable amounts of diversity based on frequency of heterozygotes and patterns of mate choice. Heterozygosity with regard to MHC was more common than homozygosity and presumably would result in greater fitness. Through mating pair analysis, it was concluded that eight of the females chose male mates that were dissimilar from themselves, while one female chose an MHC similar male mate. The result of this dissimilar mating is that African penguins are producing heterozygous offspring. MHCmediated mate choice is a tactic used by many organisms to ensure increased fitness for their offspring, and it appears as though African penguins utilize this method as well. Despite levels of heterozygosity and dissimilar mate choice, the distribution of genotypic frequencies were no different than what would be expected in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (X2df=5 = 8.7, P=0.12) (i.e., random mating). Amanda M. Stilwell Manipulation of Same Sex Social Pair Bonds in Budgerigars, Melopsittacus undulatus Same sex pair bonding can be found throughout various animal species. These relationships can be common in monogamous species, especially when there is a lack of members of the opposite sex. Budgerigars, Melopsittacus undulatus, are a socially monogamous species, which create strong pair bonds but are also known to engage in extra pair copulations. When looking at an all-male flock of budgerigars, the question arises, are these bonds easily broken or disrupted by a third party individual. After determining seven pair bonds in a flock of 32 males, these pairs were removed from an aviary and placed in separate lab cages where their social structure was manipulated using a third party male or female. Pairs were also categorized as strong, weak and control. Behaviors of affiliation and aggression were recorded before, during and after a third party individual was added and removed. It was found that there were no significant differences in the behaviors performed between strong pairs when the third party individual was present and after its removal. There were found to be significant differences in the behaviors between pairs during the presence and after the removal of the third party individual for weak and non-bonded pairs. It was concluded then that strong pairs were not disrupted by third party individuals regardless of the third party’s sex. Michael J. Swenor Decellularization of Liver and re-cellularization using Stem Cells In the United States there are 24,383 people waiting for organ transplants. Of these, 15,318 are waiting for liver transplants. While donor programs do 12 wonderful things by helping find suitable organs for recipients there are still many problems. One of the many problems of organ procurement is the fear of rejection. Other problems include getting the organ to the point of transplant and matching the recipient and donor with a viable organ. Most of the organs that are donated will go to research and of the ones that are transplanted the chances of rejection are high. The broader objective of this study was to find a better solution to donor organ procurement. If we can successfully decellularize an organ or multiple organs leaving behind the organ’s structure and then re-implant cells from a person in need of transplant we could eliminate the need for donors. The organs that we used were chicken livers and the stem cells that we plan to use are derived from human urine. The idea behind using stem cells from urine is that it would be a non invasive way to obtain stem cells. With successful recellularization we would expect the need of a lifetime of drug treatment for a transplant patient to be eliminated as well. With the use of certain detergents, such as sodium dodecyl sulfate, and phosphate buffered solution can literally “wash” the organ of its cells leaving behind the extracellular matrix. Testing of the tissues with a hematoxylin and eosin staining procedure we will be able to determine if the washing the livers of all of their cells was a success. Emily R. Willmer A Comparison of the Genetic Diversity of the Class II Major Histocompatibility Complex in ex situ and in situ Populations of African Penguins (Spheniscus demersus) As an endangered species, the African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) is at risk of becoming extinct in the wild due to destruction of their coastal habitat and reduction in food availability. The development of a genetically diverse and healthy captive population is important in helping to conserve the species. The goal of this project was to determine the genetic diversity of the class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) of a wild population of African penguins and compare it to the diversity of the captive population at Mystic aquarium in Mystic, Connecticut that has previously been studied. We found that the wild population of African penguins that was sampled had similar levels of heterozygosity to the captive Mystic Aquarium penguins but the number of alleles found in the wild population was twice that of the captive population. Two undescribed alleles were also found in the wild population. These results have important implications in future management of this species as they indicate that practices need to be put into place to enhance the genetic variability of our captive populations to help ensure conservation of the species. 13