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kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI “... OK, suppose we do an experiment and it confirms theory. What have we learned? Nothing! Progress comes from experiments where theory fails.” -- mid-20th century physicists’ truism kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI An Astrophysical Counter-Paradigm:* The Hubble Treasury Project for Eta Carinae * ( Which is the counter-paradigm? -- Well, mainly I mean Eta Carinae; but our project is also somewhat unconventional.) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI F TRUTH-IN-ADVERTISING DISCLAIMER This talk shouldn’t be considered “a report on the h Car Treasury Program”, exactly -- because ... E kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI The topic is honestly too large! We only have time for a rather breathless outline of just a fraction of the project. ( More about this later. ) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Carina: A constellation in the far south of the sky; formerly Argo, Argo Navis, or even Robur Carolinum. (But that last one is another story – history, not astronomy.) ...The most spectacular spiral arm in our quadrant of the Galaxy lies in that direction. For example, at galactic longitude 287°, latitude -1°, we can see ... kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI NGC 3372 , a big star-formation region 7500 lightyears away. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI A closer view of NGC 3372 (now North is at the top) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Eta Carinae and its famous ejecta Strictly speaking, h Car is the star at the center. The bipolar structure is the “Homunculus Nebula”, ejected in a titanic eruption observed from 1836 to 1860. The ejected mass was 5 Msun or more, but the central star survived. After 160 years of expansion at 650 km/s, the Homunculus’ polar diameter is currently about 0.2 pc or 0.65 lightyear. Here, though, we’re mainly interested in h Car itself. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI This object is uniquely significant for astrophysics in a variety of ways. In fact it really amounts to a surprisingly broad topic, and the hard part of describing it is to choose where to start. For example, we might begin with its impressive list of superlatives ... kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI h Car’s pages in the Guinness book 1. Most luminous star that we’re sure about: Certainly L > 3 million L sun , and probably L 5 million L sun . -- Which implies it’s the most massive, too: Initial mass 140 to 200 M sun , Present-day mass 110 to 150 M sun . 2. Most extreme stellar wind. Mass-loss rate is around 0.001 M sun per year. That’s 300 to 1000 more than a normal massive star. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Guinness list, continued 3. Brightest extra-solar object in the sky at mid-IR wavelengths. 4. Probably the strongest, hottest thermal X-ray source among known stars. (kT ~ 5 keV) 5. Biggest non-terminal stellar explosion that we know much about. (5—10 M sun ejected, total energy > 10 49 ergs) 6. The only naked-eye star that we really don’t understand. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI ST. JAMES’S GATE, DUBLIN ...These superlatives are potentially valuable, because often one learns something by exploring the extremes of parameter space. In particular, that can be a good way to learn which parts of theory don’t work. The next page shows a real example. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI The Eddington Limit is fundamental and ubiquitous in astrophysics -- re. stars, black holes, accretion disks, AGN’s, etc. A few years ago Nir Shaviv discovered that it doesn’t work the way that everyone assumed. His best, most concrete example was the Great Eruption of Eta Carinae. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI A second way to begin: The most massive stars have been fashionable among some cosmologists. (And what could be more fashionable than cosmology?) According to astrophysical folklore dating back about 40 years – and supported by theory, sort of – the first generation of stars included a larger fraction of very massive objects, M > 60 M sun , than we have today. They helped to re-ionize the universe, with various consequences. Two or three years ago, when questioned closely, enthusiasts typically replied, “Very massive stars are straightforward. Simple Thomson-scattering opacity, no convection in the outer layers, nothing to worry about. What could possibly go wrong?” Alas, most of them didn’t know the following history. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI THE H-R DIAGRAM HAS A SLOPING EMPIRICAL UPPER LIMIT – NO YELLOW, ORANGE, RED SUPER-SUPERGIANTS. WHY? kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI LIKELY EXPLANATION: ERUPTIVE MASS LOSS -- A COMPLICATED SURFACE INSTABILITY WHICH ARISES NEAR THE EDDINGTON LIMIT. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI In extreme cases, we think, the giant eruption is a SUPERNOVA IMPOSTOR. This is the modern term for Zwicky’s notorious “Type V Supernova”: -- Peak brightness lower than a real SN, -- Much longer duration than a SN, -- Total energy radiated as photons is roughly the same as in a SN, -- The star survives! (Most of it, anyway) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI (Supernova Impostors, continued:) The two classic examples kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Other Supernova Impostors are also known. A research group interested in SN 1954J is reportedly planning a TV series on Impostors: kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI At any rate, in terms of physics, Supernova Impostors are more mysterious than real Supernovae. Unlike SNae, the instability mechanism has not been modeled and is not even known for certain. We certainly can’t read about it in textbooks! kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI ETA CARINAE APPEARS TO BE THE MOST EXTREME OBSERVABLE EXAMPLE. INDEED IT INSPIRED THE BASIC IDEA. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI HERE’S THE POINT (or points): -- No one predicted this phenomenon, which represented a serious gap in theory. -- It still does, in fact; even 25 years after the basic idea arose, the eruption mechanism is only vaguely understood. (Turbulence + radiation + rotation: a Combination From Hell.) -- Eta Car has done a lot of other things that also were not predicted by theorists ! Indeed, theory has a downright poor record for this star. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI That’s one reason why we call Eta Car a counter-paradigm. By the philosopher’s criterion (*quote*), this object is a good experiment, with implications for several branches of astrophysics – not just stars. It’s also a sobering & healthy rebuke to theoretical complacency. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI A third way to begin (even if it’s almost a digression): The GRB Connection – Cosmic Gamma-Ray Bursters. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI The connection seems pretty obvious, given that Eta’s mass is very large. And this is one star whose rotation axis we know ! * * ( Probably. ) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI ... Which brings us to a related point about rotation and stellar winds – an important recent observational + theoretical development, in which HST/STIS observations of h Car played a unique, unconventional, and absolutely essential role. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Logarithmic H-alpha profiles (see N. Smith’s PhD thesis) We can observe the spectrum from the polar direction, via reflection by dust. It’s different in a very significant way! kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI --- Latitude about 40° Probable interpretation: The wind is densest at the poles, even though this seems counter-intuitive. (Stan Owocki has a fairly logical explanation.) --- Approx. polar view kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI The photosphere (which is located in the wind) is most likely prolate, with a range of temperatures. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI 5th motivation: A DIVERSITY OF SUBTOPICS, embracing multiple branches of astrophysics. Stellar structure: instabilities, evolution, nature of the Eddington limit Stellar wind physics: extreme parameters. Practically the only stellar wind we can view from various latitudes (reflection) Exotic nebular excitation processes (unique) Dust formation in Nitrogen-rich circumstances (dust grains in the Homunculus are known to be highly unusual) Gas-dynamics in the ejecta (odd structures) Etcetera -- this ain’t a complete list. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI 6th motivation (not entirely scientific) : THIS OBJECT IS EXTRAORDINARILY WELL - MATCHED TO THE HST. For instance, we need the highest spatial resolution, but that resolution is attainable -- because Eta is bright. We can “push” the instruments more than most other users try to do. ...Indeed, if we didn’t know better, one would almost imagine that the STIS was designed specifically to observe Eta Carinae. It wasn’t, but it turned out almost that way. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Ground-based spatial resolution -- even 0.5 -is simply not adequate for this object. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI WITH HST, A DIVERSITY OF TYPES OF SPECTRA, EACH UNIQUE AMONG KNOWN OBJECTS: kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Quite honestly, this has been one of the most successful of all HST targets, using most of the available instruments. Since 1991 it has consistently held the record for highest angular resolution of any complex spectroscopy. · FOS 1991 (pre-COSTAR): First spectrum ever obtained of the star itself; enormous mass-loss rate. Discovered the basic nature of the Weigelt blobs. · WFC-PC 1991-1993: Revealed that the Homunculus Nebula is bipolar, with a mysterious equatorial skirt. · WFPC2(PC) 1994-1996: One of the most familiar of all HST color images, quickly became a popular-astronomy icon. · FOS 1996-1997: One of the very few objects ever observed with the tiny 0.1 FOS aperture. ( continued on next page ) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI · FOC 1991-94, then GHRS 1996: Showed that the Weigelt blobs were ejected long after the Great Eruption, and are moving at slow speeds that defy intuition. · FOS 1996-97: Discovered several different and unfamiliar classes of exotic emission spectra throughout the Homunculus, each of them unique among known objects. · GHRS 1996: Pseudo-laser lines near 2507 Å – again, unique in astrophysics. · STIS 1998-2000: Discovered the UV “iron curtain” during a spectroscopic event, disproved existing orbital velocity models, revealed many other details of the 1998 event. · STIS 1998-99 and later 2002-04: The central star has recently brightened at an amazing rate. ( continued on next page ) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI · WFPC2 1994-2000: Proper motion studies of the Homunculus. Dominant ejection date was 1843, during the Great Eruption. · STIS 2000: Spectra seen from various latitudes via reflection by dust. Result: The stellar wind is essentially polar -- a fairly revolutionary result for wind theory in general. · STIS 1998-2001: [ Sr II ] and other weird emission lines. · STIS 2000: Three-dimensional shape and orientation of the Homunculus. Found that the equatorial debris was ejected in two or more separate events. · STIS 1998-2000: Discovery of a “Little Homunculus” hidden inside the two large lobes. Apparently ejected 50 years after the Giant Eruption. · STIS and ACS 2002 et seq.: Numerous Treasury Program results, some of them outlined in this talk. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Digression: Pop culture, HST, and explosions in space 1977: In the original version of Star Wars, the Death Star blew up spherically. Late 1990’s: Mysteriously, the same explosion had now become bipolar – including an equatorial skirt. Now why do you suppose that happened? kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI 20 YEARS AGO: ANOTHER MYSTERY, OR MAYBE A CLUE TO ETA’S STRUCTURE? “SPECTROSCOPIC EVENTS” High-excitation emission lines temporarily disappeared at various times – · 1948 (Gaviola data) · 1964 (Rodgers & Searle data) · 1981 (classic Zanella et al. paper) · 1986 (noticed by various observers) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI THE CLEAREST EARLY DESCRIPTION OF A SPECTROSCOPIC EVENT IN ETA ... kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI THE CLEAREST EARLY DESCRIPTION OF A SPECTROSCOPIC EVENT IN ETA ... kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI ...And later Viotti noticed that the strange 2507 Å emission had also disappeared for a while in 1981 (IUE data) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI THE POINT: IF WE CAN FIGURE OUT WHAT CAUSES A SPECTROSCOPIC EVENT, IT MAY TELL US SOMETHING ABOUT ETA CAR’S STRUCTURE AND INSTABILITIES. (In fact, Zanella et al. expressed a promising idea -- more about that later.) BUT IT’S HARD TO DIAGNOSE SPORADIC, POORLY OBSERVED OCCASIONS. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Anyway: High-excitation, high ionization emission lines temporarily disappeared in 1948, 1964, 1981, 1986. 1992: Another event -- observed (so far as I know) only by Augusto Damineli in Brazil. 1996: Based on the 1992 event, Damineli realized that a recurrence period of 5.5 years would fit all the known instances.* 1997-98: The next event occurred at the predicted time. * ( Today we know the period is about 5.54 yr. ) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI DOUBLE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE 5.5-YEAR SPECTROSCOPIC CYCLE 1. The periodicity itself may be a clue. 2. --And, given the 5.5-year period, for the first time we knew when such an event would occur! kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI A binary companion is the most obvious “explanation” for the periodicity. Its orbit must be quite eccentric, though. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Results of the 1997-98 event 1. 2-10 keV X-rays increased tremulously, then crashed. 2. A few orbits with STIS showed various changes in the spectrum of the star itself – e.g., the UV “iron curtain”. Strong low-excitation absorption -- Fe II, Ca II, etc. – and temporary P Cyg absorption in Ha ; etc. Practically no temporal coverage, though, and obs were late in the event. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Thus, by 2001, the topic had reached a sort of crisis. 1. We knew about the 5.5-year period. 2. We had obtained some minimal spectroscopy in 1998 using the HST’s STIS instrument. 3. The next predicted “event” would occur in mid-2003. 4. HST data were absolutely necessary. 5. We also recognized that HST spectroscopy will not be possible for the next event after that, in 2008-2009. Nor later ! kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Idea (2001): A Treasury Project! Criteria for such a program: -- Data of broad significance. -- Extensive enough to justify and construct a long-term data archive. -- Similar observations will not be possible after the HST ceases to operate. This topic matched the criteria perfectly. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI (Parenthetical: an unprecedented situation) No instrument with HST/STIS’s capabilities will be available again for a long time – conceivably a long, long time. Therefore: Many observations, possible from 1997 to early 2004, will now be impossible for the forseeable future. But the case of Eta Car is even worse! By the time that some capable new instrument becomes available, perhaps 10 to 30 years from now, this star will have changed. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Hence our project. Main goals & components: 1. A huge set of observations during 2002—2004 with STIS, the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph. This is, quite honestly, close to the most intensive spectroscopy that HST will ever do. 2. We are developing better software for reducing and analyzing STIS data. (Badly needed for other users as well.) 3. Supplemental images of Eta Car using two other HST instruments, the WFPC2 and the ACS. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI (Project goals & components, continued): 4. Parallel observations using the European Southern Observatory’s “VLT/UVES” instrument in Chile. 5. The whole caboodle will go into a special, highly non-routine Data Archive that astronomers will still be able to use 30 or 40 years from now. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Project participants (CoI’s) – listed in more or less inverted order CoI’s at other institutions who in using the data: Manuel Bautista (Venezuela) Augusto Damineli (Brazil) John Hillier (U. Pittsburgh) are mainly interested Mike Corcoran (NASA/GSFC) Fred Hamann (U. Florida) Nolan Walborn (STScI) CoI’s in Germany who have obtained the ESO/VLT data: Otmar Stahl Kerstin Weis Preparation of the big observing plan, and help with material from STIS IDT: Ted Gull (NASA/GSFC) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Project participants, continued Initial data reduction and modified software: Kazunori Ishibashi (MIT) System maintenance & linux sanity: J. T. Olds (U MN) Data analyses & some dandy discoveries: Michael Koppelman (Clockwork Mpls. & U MN) Data archive & database planning, etc.: Roberta M. Humphreys (U MN) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Project participants, continued Linux building, system maintenance, software, data archive, etc. etc.: Matt Gray (U MN, later Clockwork) Data analysis, techniques development, some discoveries and most of the hard work: John C. Martin (U MN). kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Our web site: http://etacar.umn.edu The initial data archive is located there and is beginning to be publicly available. (STScI will have a modified version of the archive.) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI SPECTROGRAPH SLIT kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI SPECTROGRAPH SLIT OFFSET FROM STAR kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Concerning the amount of data ... Each complete spectrum covered the wavelength range from 170 nm in the UV to about 1 mm in the near-IR. To do this, we needed 30 grating tilts. Eta Car is almost unique in getting complete wavelength coverage with STIS. Since this object is so bright, we typically obtained more than a dozen independent integrations per orbit. This is highly unusual, and is the chief reason why our data volume is among the largest obtained in any HST program. Altogether we have several hundreds of separate wavelength observations obtained with an 800 x 800 CCD detector. In addition, far-UV data were obtained with a different type of detector. ( explain about special processing ) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Ca II and hydrogen lines near 390 nm kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI COMPLEX STRUCTURE IN UV DATA NEAR 290 nm kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Vicinity of H b, c. 490 nm kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Behavior of the H a emission line profile during the 1998—2003 cycle. (our STIS data) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Only a small fraction of the project can be included in this talk. Some of the topics we must skip: · Improvements in data processing for STIS. Some of our techniques may be helpful for HST users in general. · Data archive details. The STIS/CCD data are publicly available now in convenient form, other data will follow. (Standard STScI archiving is not very suitable for these unusually intensive observations.) · ACS imaging data obtained for the Treasury Program. In most respects these are the highest-quality images of the Homunculus so far. · STIS / MAMA / echelle observations in the UV. -- continued on next page -- kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI -- more topics not covered here -- · Ground-based VLT / UVES spectroscopy which supplements the HST data. (ESO; O. Stahl & K. Weis) · Observations of the diffuse ejecta. Today we’ll restrict ourselves to the star itself (or rather, its wind). · Routine “as expected” results on the star, essential for testing models but not particularly exciting. · Possible single-star models for the event. Contrary to what some authors have said, the companion star has not, repeat not been confirmed or proven. Every existing observation might in principle be explained with just one star. Since a model of that type seems less likely, however, here we’ll save time by assuming that h Car is a binary system. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI The 2003.5 event did occur on schedule. Here are some of the observables used for timing it. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI First point: Eclipse or mass ejection? This question strongly affects the basic importance of the 5.5–year cycle. ( explain ) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI First point: Eclipse or mass ejection? This question strongly affects the basic importance of the 5.5–year cycle. ( explain ) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Frankly, the eclipse idea never was very appealing. It was motivated by X-ray analogies (0.01% of the luminosity), its predictions even for the X-rays generally failed, and it was unclear for other parts of the spectrum. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI (Parenthetical complaint): This mini-debate would make a good case study of scientific procedure. Normal rules of evidence, predictions, etc., have been perceptibly “bent”. Just about any outcome is customarily hailed as a great success of the eclipse theory. Sorry if this sounds grumpy, but it’s been true! kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI ... And the alternative is older and far more interesting. (Please don’t take the word “shell” too literally, though.) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI (Imagine what might happen near periastron.) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI (Imagine what might happen near periastron.) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI ... Some emission-line velocities (hydrogen, helium) appear to make trouble for the eclipse model. But new and unexpected evidence has appeared in the He II 4687 emission. This feature was first reported by Damineli last year, but its true brightness, other details, and analysis became evident only with our STIS data. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI He II 4687 emission The peak amount was terrific compared to expectations, and the post-maximum decline was catastrophically fast. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Desperate ansatz to explain the He II emission: Soft X-rays from the shocked gas (region 3) create He++ in region 4 ... This sketch is VERY idealized (explain). kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI ... Which presents three technical difficulties: 1. Energy budget requires either an extra mass ejection or else a special trick (see next slide); kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Energy-level diagram for He II kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI ... Which presents three technical difficulties: 1. Energy budget requires either an extra mass ejection or else a special trick; 2. But the special trick requires high gas densities – so we need a mass ejection anyway ... kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI ... Which presents three technical difficulties: 1. Energy budget requires either an extra mass ejection or else a special trick; 2. But the special trick requires high gas densities – so we need a mass ejection anyway ... 3. And the timing of the peak! (next slide) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI The He II emission rose rapidly, after the hard X-rays had already declined substantially. This doesn’t seem very eclipse-like. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Moreover, several other bits of evidence strongly suggest that the orbit is oriented roughly as shown here – so periastron is near quadrature. That’s where the event happens! kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI Some other unexpected developments may be related to each other. For instance, the star’s apparent brightness increased at an almost alarming rate in 2003. This is a figure from Martin & Koppelman’s paper. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI We suspect that something basic is changing right now, i.e. in this decade! (explain) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI The point: Thermal and rotational recovery timescales following an eruption may possibly produce cycles of various lengths. (Terrestrial precedent: geysers.) Moreover, we shouldn’t be very surprised if the star’s surface conditions suddenly change. (Explain: sensitive to parameters.) kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI If developments continue at this rapid pace – Within 15 years, the star will appear brighter than its Homunculus Nebula and will be 4th magnitude. To the unaided eye it will again seem as it did to Halley three centuries ago. And the wind may become appreciably weaker. kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI If developments continue at this rapid pace – Within 15 years, the star will appear brighter than its Homunculus Nebula and will be 4th magnitude. To the unaided eye it will again seem as it did to Halley three centuries ago. And the wind may become appreciably weaker. In saying this, however, I’m ignoring the time-honored, repeatedly vindicated, STANDARD ETA CARINAE CARTOON: kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI ... What origin can we ascribe to these sudden flashes and relapses? What conclusions are we to draw as to the comfort or habitability of a system depending for its supply of light and heat on so uncertain a source? -- J.F.W. Herschel, 1847 kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI ---- kd 2005 June 8 -- talk at STScI -----