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The Dynamic Earth and Space Geodesy EATS 1010 3.0 [Fall 2012] Instructor: Gary Jarvis, Department of Earth and Space Science & Engineering (ESSE) 117 Petrie Science & Engineering Building [email protected], 416-736-2100 Ext. 77710 Laboratory Coordinator: Terry Du, 77706 [email protected] Text: The Dynamic Earth and Space Geodesy, SC/EATS 1010 3.0 (Custom Publication for York University) ESSE office: 102 Petrie Science & Engineering, 416-736-2100 Ext. 55245 1 The Dynamic Earth and Space Geodesy EATS 1010 3.0 [Fall 2012] Earth as a Planetary Body in Space Topics •Origin of the Earth •Impact Craters •Earth’s Interior •Plate Tectonics •Geomagnetism •Seismology •Space Geodesy & Geomatics •VLBI •GPS •GIS •Remote Sensing Large Scale Small Scale 2 The Dynamic Earth and Space Geodesy EATS 1010 3.0 [Fall 2012] Course Marking Scheme & Schedule 5 Laboratory Exercises: 20% Sept. 17 – Nov. 23 Mid-Term Test: 30% October 18 Final Exam: 50% December 5 – 21. 3 EATS 1010 3.0 Lab. Timetable (Fall 2012) Group Day Time Lab 1 Lab 2 Lab 3 Lab 4 Lab 5 Planet Minerals Plate GPS Geomatics Earth Tectonics _______________________________________________________________________ 1 2 M M 11:30 2:30 Sept. 17 Oct. 1 Sept. 17 Oct. 1 Oct. 22 Oct. 22 Nov. 5 Nov. 5 Nov. 19 Nov. 19 3 4 T T 11:30 2:30 Sept. 18 Oct. 2 Sept. 18 Oct. 2 Oct. 23 Oct. 23 Nov. 6 Nov. 6 Nov. 20 Nov. 20 5 6 W W 11:30 2:30 Sept. 19 Oct. 3 Sept. 19 Oct. 3 Oct. 24 Oct. 24 Nov. 7 Nov. 7 Nov. 21 Nov. 21 7 8 R R 11:30 2:30 Sept. 20 Oct. 4 Sept. 20 Oct. 4 Oct. 25 Oct. 25 Nov. 8 Nov. 8 Nov. 22 Nov. 22 9 10 11 F F F 8:30 11:30 2:30 Sept. 21 Oct. 5 Sept. 21 Oct. 5 Sept. 21 Oct. 5 Oct. 26 Oct. 26 Oct. 26 Nov. 9 Nov. 9 Nov. 9 Nov. 23 Nov. 23 Nov. 23 4 Attendance Lectures - Notes are essential – cover 80% of material Text required - covers about 50% of material Laboratory Sessions - Mandatory – zero tolerance - Change of lab group only with permission of lab. coordinator. - Lab exercises must be submitted to your group TA. Otherwise no mark. 5 Powers of Ten Number Conventional Name 0.001 0.01 0.1 1. 10. 100. 1,000. 10,000. 100,000. 1,000,000. 10,000,000. 100,000,000. 1,000,000,000. One Thousandth One Hundredth One Tenth One Ten One Hundred One Thousand Ten Thousand One Hundred Thousand One Million Ten Million One Hundred Million One Billion Scientific Notation 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 x 1000 x 1000 6 Powers of Ten - Naming Convention 103 = thousand 1033 = decillion 106 = million 1036 = undecillion 109 = billion 1039 = duodecillion 1012 = trillion 1042 = tredecillion 1015 = quadrillion ..... 1018 = quintillion 1021 = sextillion 1084 = septemvigintillion 1024 = septillion ...... 1027 = octillion 1030 = nonillion 103000 = novenonagintanongentillion 7 Measuring Distance or Mass Conventional Name nanometre micron millimetre centimetre metre kilometre Number 0.000000001 m 0.000001 m 0.001 m 0.01 m 1.0 m 1,000.0 m Scientific Notation 10-9 m 10-6 m 10-3 m 10-2 m 100 m 103 m Distance to the Moon : 384,000 km 3.84 x 105 km Distance to nearest star: 40,396,460,000,000 km 4.04 x 1013 km Distance to Quasars: 122,987,000,000,000,000,000,000 km 1.23 x 1023 km Mass of the Sun: 1,998,920,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg or, 1.999 x 1030 kg Mass of a Galactic Black Hole: 399,784,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg or, 3.99784 x 1038 kg. ≈ 4 x 1038 kg. 8 • quasar • The Visible Universe • ••• • • galaxy galaxy cluster • • • quasar • galaxy • • • • • • quasar • ••• •••• galaxy cluster • quasar • 9 Film: Powers of 10 Quasars • quasars, quasi-stellar radio sources (originally looked like a single point, i.e. star-like) • they emit enormous amounts of energy, equal to the energy of a trillion suns. Some quasars produce 1000 times more energy than our entire galaxy. • they are the most luminous, powerful, and energetic objects known in the universe. They tend to inhabit the very centers of active young galaxies • they are small (Solar System sized or less) – not star-like • the most distant quasars observed are over 10 billion light-years away. • Quasars are believed to be powered by the injection of material into supermassive black holes in the nuclei of distant galaxies. Since light can't escape the supermassive black holes that are at the center of quasars, the escaping energy is actually generated by gravitational stresses and immense friction on the incoming material. 10 • quasar Earth • The Visible Universe • ••• • • galaxy • galaxy cluster • • galaxy quasar • galaxy • galaxy Milky •Way Galaxy • • • quasar • ••• •••• galaxy cluster • quasar • • 11 Galaxies Astronomers can see billions of galaxies. Photograph from the Hubble space telescope. The Sun There are 100 billion "Suns" in a galaxy like our own Milky Way Galaxy. 12 The Milky Way Galaxy as seen edge on from the Solar System 13 The Milky Way Galaxy Fig. 24.18 14 The Milky Way On a clear dark night With telescope and time exposure 15 Our Solar System Our solar system consists of an average-size star we call the Sun; the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune; and the dwarf planet Pluto. It also includes: the satellites of the planets; numerous comets, asteroids, and meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium. Sun Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto 16 Relative sizes of planets Formation of the Solar System The “Nebular Hypothesis” A cloud of interstellar gas/dust, the "solar nebula", including material formed in previous generations of stars, is disturbed (for example, by the shock wave from a nearby supernova). 17 Formation of the Solar System 1. Contraction: The cloud starts collapsing under its own gravity. The collapsing, spinning nebula begins to flatten into a rotating pancake. 18 Formation of the Solar System 2. A Protostar forms in the centre, when the core becomes dense enough; later will become the Sun. 3. Dust grains stick to each other and sweep their paths, forming larger particles (Planetesimals). 4. Orbital paths are cleared. 5. The Sun and its planets all spin in the same direction. 19 The Sun Within the core of the Sun: temperatures exceed 15,000,000° C and pressure is 340 billion times the atmospheric pressure at Earth's surface. Conditions are so intense that nuclear fusion takes place creating new elements. 20 Nuclear Fusion in the Sun Four hydrogen nuclei get fused into one helium nucleus, Accompanied by the emission of neutrinos and release of energy: 4 H1 He4 + neutrinos + energy H1 is the nucleus of a hydrogen atom (one proton) He4 is the nucleus of a helium atom (two protons and two neutrons) 21 Conversion of Mass into Energy The nucleus of the resulting helium atom is about 0.7 percent less massive than the four component protons. During the fusion of hydrogen, approximately 0.7% of the mass of hydrogen is converted into energy. E = mc2 22 The Solar Wind Fast-moving ions can escape the Sun's gravitational attraction. Moving outward at hundreds of kilometres/second, these positive and negative charges travel to the farthest reaches of the solar system. They are called the solar wind. 23 Solar Prominences Bursts of solar wind accompany solar prominences (similar to nuclear explosions) which extend millions of km into space. Earth Solar Prominence 24 Interstellar Distances • The Sun is massive – 99.9% of mass of Solar System. - The planets are relatively minute: - Jupiter makes up most of the remaining 0.1%. • The next nearest star appears as a point of light. • Similarly, from the nearest star, our Sun would appear as a point of light in the night sky - the planets of our Solar System would not be visible. - similarly planets of other stars are not visible to us, but must exist [detected by wobbles of star due to gravity of orbiting planets]. • Distances between the stars are enormous. 25 A new unit of distance to measure interstellar space Light Year: The distance light travels in a year, travelling at a speed of 300,000 kilometres per second; 1 light-year is equivalent to 9.46053 x 1012 km ( almost ten trillion km). • The Sun's nearest known stellar neighbour is a star called Proxima Centauri, at a distance of 4.3 light years away (i.e., 4.3 LY). • Some Quasars are more distant than 10 billion LY. 26 The Solar System is Small Solar System from a Cosmic Perspective Facts: 1. Average distance from the Sun to Neptune is 4.5 x 109 km 2. Distance from the Sun to the nearest star is 4.1 x 1013 km (~ 9000 x distance from Sun to Neptune) 3. The Sun is one of 1022 similar stars. 4. On a cosmic scale the Solar System is microscopic. 27 The Solar System is Large Solar System from an Earth Perspective Facts: 1. The Diameter of Earth is 12.8 x 103 km (DEarth) 2. The distance from the Sun to Earth is 1.496 x 108 km or about 12,000 x DEarth. 3. The diameter of Neptune’s orbit is 700,000 x DEarth. 4. On an Earth scale the Solar System is vast. 28 A new unit of distance to measure interplanetary space Astronomical Unit (AU) : The average distance from the Earth to the Sun; 1 AU = 149,597,870 kilometres (~150 million km) 1 LY= 63,240 AU. We can measure distances within the solar system in units of AU’s. e.g., The distance from the Sun to Earth is 1 AU The distance from the Sun to Mars is 1.5 AU The distance from the Sun to Venus is 0.72 AU 29