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8-1
Chapter
8
Personal Technology
8.1 Managing Files: Basic Concepts
8.2 Database Management Systems
8.3 Database Models
8.4 Data Mining
8.5 Databases & The Digital Economy
8.6 Using Databases to Help Make Decisions
8.7 Artificial Intelligence
8.8 The Ethics of Using Databases
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Managing Files: Basic Concepts
A database is a logically organized collection of related
data designed and built for a specific purpose
Data is stored hierarchically for easier storage and
retrieval
 Files: collections of related records
 Records: collections of related fields
 Field: unit of data containing 1 or more
characters
 Character: a letter number or special
character made of bits
 Bit: a 0 or 1
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Managing Files: Basic Concepts
Key Field – the field that identifies a record
 Often
an identifying number, such as social security
number
 Primary
keys must be unique
 Keys
are used to pick records out of a database
 Unique keys make records stand out from each other
 If two records had the same key, then you might not pick the
correct one
 Nonprimary keys are used to sort records in different ways
 Foreign keys are fields that appear in two different tables and
are used to relate one table to another
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Managing Files: Basic Concepts
This example
shows a sample
database in
Microsoft
Access.
Products is a
table. ProductID
is the primary
key of the
Product table.
ProductID is also
a foreign key in
the Orders table
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Managing Files: Basic Concepts
Program files are files containing software instructions
 Source
program files are written by the software
developer in the programming language
on them won’t run them
 They have file extensions like .cpp, .jav, .bas
 Double-clicking
 Executable
files are program files translated so they can
be executed on the computer
 Double-clicking
on them will cause them to run
 They have file extensions like .exe or .com
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Managing Files: Basic Concepts
Data files are files that contain data such as words,
numbers, pictures, or sounds
 These
are the files that are used in databases
 They have extensions such as .txt .mdb, and .xls
 Graphics files have extensions like .tiff, .jpeg, and .png
 Audio files have extensions such as .mp3, .wav, and .mid
 Animation/video files have extensions such as .qt, .mpg,
.avi, and .rm
Data files are often compressed to save space and
transmit them faster
 Compression
removes repetitive elements from a file
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Database Management Systems
Software written specifically to control the structure of
a database and access to the data
 Reduced
data redundancy
 Redundant
data is stored in multiple places, which causes
problems keeping all the copies current
 Improved
 Means
data integrity
the data is accurate, consistent, and up to date
 Increased
 Limits
 Ease
security
who can create, read, update, and delete the data
of data maintenance
 Offer
validation checks, backup utilities, and procedures for
data inserting, updating, and deletion
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Database Management Systems
3 Principal Components
Data Dictionary
 A repository
that stores the data definitions and
descriptions of the structure of the data and the database
DBMS Utilities
 Programs
that allow you to maintain the database by
creating, editing, deleting data, records, and files
 Also include automated backup and recovery
Report Generator
 Program
for producing an on-screen or printed document
form all or part of a database
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Database Management Systems
Database Administrator
Database Administrator (DBA)
 A high-paid,
responsible position within an organization
 Coordinates all related activities and needs for an
organization’s database
 Ensures the database’s
Discussion Question:
Did you know that 93%
of companies that lost
their data center for 10
days or more due to a
disaster filed for
bankruptcy within a
year?
 Recoverability
 Integrity
 Security
 Availability
 Reliability
 Performance
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Database Models
 Hierarchical database  Fields or records are arranged in a family
 Network database
 Relational database
 Object-oriented
database
 Multidimensional
database
tree, with child records subordinate to parent
or higher-level records
 Like a hierarchical database, but each child
record can have more than one parent record
 Relates, or connects, data in different files
through the use of a key, or common data
element
 Uses objects (software written in small,
reusable chunks) as elements within
database files
 Models data as facts, dimensions, or
numerical measures for use in the interactive
analysis of large amounts of data
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Database Models
 Hierarchical Databases
Fields or records are arranged in related groups resembling a family
tree with child (low-level) records subordinate to parent (high-level)
records
 Root record is the parent record at the top of the database, and data
is accessed through the hierarchy
 Oldest and simplest; used in mainframes

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Database Models
 Network Database
Similar to a hierarchical database, but each child record can have
more than one parent record
 Used principally with mainframe computers
 Requires the database structure to be defined in advance

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Database Models
Relational Database
 Relates
or connects data in different files through the use
of a key, or common data element
 Examples are Oracle, Informix, Sybase
 Data exists independently of how it is physically stored
 Users don’t need to know data structure to use the
database
 Uses SQL (structured query language) to create, modify,
maintain, and query the data
 Query by Example uses sample records or forms to allow
users to define the qualifications for choosing records
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Database Models
Object-oriented Databases
 Use
“objects”, software written in small, manageable
chunks, as elements within data files
 An object consists of
 Data
in any form, including audio, graphics, and video
 Instructions on the action to be taken with the data
 Examples
include FastObjects, GemStone, Objectivity
DB, Jasmine Object Database, and KE Express
 Types include
 Web
database
 Hypermedia database
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Database Models
Multidimensional Database
 Models
data as facts, dimensions, or numerical answers
for use in the interactive analysis of large amounts of
data for decision-making purposes
 Allows users to ask questions in colloquial English
 Use OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) software to
provide answers to complex database queries
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Data Mining
Is the computer-assisted process of sifting through and
analyzing vast amounts of data to extract hidden
patterns and meaning and to discover new knowledge
Data is fed into a Data Warehouse through the
following steps
 Identify
and connect to data sources
 Perform data fusion and data cleansing
 Obtain both data and meta-data (data about the data)
 Transport data and meta-data to the Data Warehouse
Data Warehouse is a special database that shows
detailed and summary data from multiple sources
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Data Mining
Methods for searching for patterns in the data and
interpreting the results
 Regression
 Develops
analysis
a formula to fit patterns in the data that has been
extracted
 Formula is applied to other data sets to predict future trends
 Classification
analysis
 A statistical
pattern recognition process that is applied to
data sets with more than just numerical data
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Data Mining
Applications include
 A phone
company identifying customers with large bills,
who were really small businesses trying to pay the
cheaper residential rate
 A coach in the Gymnastics Federation used it to discover
what long-term factors contributed to athletes’
performance
 Retail stores use it to predict future purchase patterns to
help them choose which products to stock for the future
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Databases & The Digital Economy
E-Commerce
 The
buying and selling of products and services through
computer networks
 Examples of some e-tailers (electronic retailers):
 www.amazon.com
sells books and music online
 www.sees.com sells candy online
 www.ebay.com connects buyers with sellers online using
online auctions
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Databases & The Digital Economy
Innovative e-tailer technologies make online shopping
easier
 One-click
option
 Allows
you to click on an item and immediately go to the
check-out process
 360-degree
 Allow
 Order
images
you to see all sides of an item
tracking
 Bar
codes are assigned to items being shipped that allow
customers to check shipping progress via the internet
 Shop
bots
 Are
programs that help users search for a particular product
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of service
Databases & The Digital Economy
Types of E-Commerce
 Business-to-business
(B2B)
 A business
sells to other businesses using the internet or a
private network to cut transaction costs and increase
efficiencies
 Business-to-consumer
 A business
(B2C)
sells goods or services to consumers
 Consumer-to-consumer
(C2C)
 Consumers
sell goods or services directly to other
consumers with the help of a third party, such as eBay.
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Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
What are the qualities of good information?
 Correct
and verifiable
 Complete yet concise
 Cost effective
 Current
 Accessible
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Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
Most organizations have 6 departments to which
information must flow
 Research
and development
 Production (or operations)
 Marketing and sales
 Accounting and finance
 Human resources (personnel)
 Information systems (IS)
Information flows horizontally between departments
8-24
Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
Besides the 6 departments, many organizations also
have 3 levels of management
 Strategic-level
management
 Top
managers concerned with strategic or long-term
planning and decisions
 Tactical-level
management
 Middle
level managers who make decisions to implement
the strategic goals set for the organization
 Operational-level
 Low-level
management
supervisors make daily operational decisions
Information flows vertically between management
levels
8-25
Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
Decentralized Organizations – a new structure
increasingly telecommute – some staff have
no desk or office at work
 Employees communicate with each other more via email
than in person
 Companies use Groupware CSCW (computer-supported
cooperative work) systems to enable cooperative work by
groups of people
 The management structure is flattened as employees are
given more authority to make day-to-day decisions
 Employees
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Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
 6 computer-based information systems
Office information systems
 Transaction processing systems
 Management information systems
 Decision support systems
 Executive support systems
 Expert systems

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Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
Transaction Processing System (TPS)
 Transactions
are recorded events of routine business
activities such as bills, orders, and inventory
 TPS systems keep track of the transactions needed to
conduct a business
 TPS systems are used by operational managers to track
business activities
 Transactions database provides the basis for
management information systems and decision support
systems
Has anyone seen the movie “Office Space”? In that movie, the hero’s
boss is nagging him about formatting the TPS report correctly. Now you
know what TPS means!
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Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
Management Information Systems (MIS)
 Computer-based
information system that uses data
recorded by a TPS as input to programs that produce
routine reports as output
 Features
 Inputs
are processed transaction data. Outputs are
summarized structured reports
 Designed for tactical managers
 Draws from all departments
 Produces several kinds or reports: summary, exception,
periodic, and demand
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Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
Decision Support Systems (DSS)
 Computer
information system that provides a flexible tool
for analysis and helps management focus on the future
 Features
 Inputs
are external data and internal data such as
summarized reports and processed transaction data.
Outputs are demand reports
 Mainly for tactical managers
 Produces analytic models
 Developed
to support the types of decisions faced by
managers in specific industries
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Using Databases to Help Make
Decisions
Executive Support Systems
 An
easy-to-use DSS made especially for strategic
managers to support strategic decision-making
 Might allow executives to call up predefined reports
 Includes capability to browse through summarized
information on all aspects of the organization and drill
down for detailed data
 Allows executives to perform “what-if” scenarios
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Artificial Intelligence
Expert System
 One
of the most useful applications of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
 AI is a group of related technologies used to develop software
and machines that emulate human qualities such as learning,
reasoning, communicating, seeing, and hearing
 Areas include
 Expert
systems
 Natural language processing
 Intelligent agents
 Virtual reality and simulation devices
 Pattern recognition
 Fuzzy logic
 Robotics
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Artificial Intelligence
Three components of an expert system
 Knowledge
base
 An
expert system’s database of knowledge about a
particular subject
 Inference
engine
 The
software that controls the search of the expert system’s
knowledge base and produces conclusions
 User
interface
 The
display screen the user used to interact with the expert
system
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Artificial Intelligence
 Natural language processing
 Allows
users to interact with a system using normal English
 The study of ways for computers to recognize and understand
human language
 Intelligent agents
 A form of software with built-in intelligence that monitors work
patterns, asks questions, and performs work tasks on your
behalf
 Pattern recognition
 Involves a camera and software that identify recurring patterns
in its vision and maps the pattern against patterns stored in a
database
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Artificial Intelligence
Fuzzy logic
 A method
of dealing with imprecise data and uncertainty,
with problems that have many answers rather than one
 Has been applied in running elevators to determine
optimum times for elevators to wait
Virtual reality
 A computer-generated
artificial reality that projects a
person into a sensation of 3-D space
 Often used with simulators to represent the behavior of
physical or abstract systems
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Artificial Intelligence
Robotics
 The
development and study of machines that can
perform work that is normally done by people
 Commonly found in manufacturing plants and also in
situations where people would be in danger
 Nuclear
plants
 Assembly lines, especially paint lines
 Checking for land mines
 Fighting oil-well fires
8-36
Artificial Intelligence
Weak vs. Strong A.I.
 Weak A.I.
claims computers can be programmed to
simulate human cognition
 Strong A.I. claims that computers can think on a level
that is equal to or better than humans, and can also
achieve consciousness
 Cyc
approach to strong A.I.
A database in Austin, TX that holds 1.4 million basic truths
 Plan is that Cyc will automatically make human-like
assumptions
 Hope is that Cyc will learn on its own

 Cog
approach to strong A.I.
MIT project that is a humanoid robot
 Tries to identify and search for patterns instead of following
rules and facts
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
Artificial Intelligence
Test for Human Intelligence
 In
1950, Allen Turing predicted computers would be able to
mimic human thinking
 The Turing test determines whether the machine is human
 Judge
is in another location and doesn’t see the computer
 If the computer can fool the judge, it is said to be intelligent
 Ethics
in A.I.
 Prof.
William Wallace from R.P.I. says that computer software
is subtly shaped by the ethical judgments of its creators
 For example, H.M.O. software used by health insurers steers
doctors to cheaper procedures – but are they better?
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The Ethics of Using Databases
Identity Theft concerns
 A crime
in which thieves hijack your identity and use your
good credit rating to get cash, take out loans, order credit
cards, and buy things in your name
Privacy concerns
 Name
migration: getting endless junk mail and
telemarketing calls
 Résumé rustling and online snooping
 Government prying and spying
Discussion Question: Has any one had their identity stolen? How long did
it take you to get it straightened out?
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