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HOW SHOULD A RULER ACT?
By
Zakaria Lamri
Junior Division
Historical Paper
Lamri 2
HOW SHOULD A RULER ACT?
1. A Look At Confucianism Versus Legalism in Ancient China
Chaos, lawlessness, corruption, distress, and greed undermined any possibility of a
peaceful and prosperous life for the people of early China. This period of time was referred to as
the Period of the Warring States. Both Han Fei Tzu and Confucius were thoughtful men, driven
by the troubles of their time to find an answer to how a ruler should act. Each man proposed a
blueprint for an ideal society, including instructions on how a ruler should act. These instructions
were included within philosophies that would appear to be completely at odds. Individually,
these philosophies could not be successfully realized. Yet, interestingly enough, successful
incorporations of both doctrines played an influential role in shaping a society, a culture, and a
way of living.
We live in such a state of order compared the people of ancient China, that it’s hard for us
to imagine how horrific and terrifying it was to live without laws and morality. The period of the
Warring States, which lasted from about 475 BC to the unification of China under the Qin
Dynasty in 221 BC, was a period of social anarchy. (Huston Smith,World’s Religions) Whole
populations of men, women, children, and the aged were brutally murdered. The number of
people beheaded and butchered at any single time was staggering, 60,000 to even 400,000 put to
death by conquering armies. There was even an account of “the conquered being thrown into
boiling cauldrons and their relatives forced to drink the human soup.” (Huston Smith p.103) The
solid traditions of the past were vanishing and China had evolved to a point where individuals
were becoming self-conscious, instead of group-conscious. “They were guided more by self
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interest than social expectations”. (Huston Smith p.104) This was considered a time when
traditions had lost their power as the mortar of society, and people were looking for a solution to
this crisis. It was in this condition that the 100 Schools of Thought emerged.
There are good reasons why the teachings of the Warring States Masters are still being
studied today. Among the many questions debated by the Masters, the political question, “How
should a ruler act?” as well as the ethical issue, “How should I act?” are still relevant to the
problems we face today. (Harvard Lecture)
2. Kongzi, Mencius and Confucianism
Saying: Confucius says, “He who learns, but does not think, is lost. He who thinks, but
does not learn, is in great danger.” (Analects II: XV) Joke: Confucius say, “Man who run behind
car get exhausted.” Just like the jokes, it’s important to sort the man from the myth. The
teachings of Confucius, over the years, have undergone many transformations since the man,
Confucius, lived and taught his ideas. Confucius, or Kongzi, was a social philosopher, born
during 551 BC into China’s lower class. Confucius taught his philosophy through the use of
conversation, metaphors, similes, allegories, and stories. He developed an ethical and
philosophical system for living and governing. Confucius was an optimist. (Biography:
Confucius) He believed in governing by the principles of virtue. He also believed that people
were born naturally good and could be taught. Confucianism was a philosophy that continued to
develop after the death of Confucius. The philosophy was passed down from student to student.
Mencius, born around 372 BC, developed Confucian philosophy further by defining human
nature, what is needed for good government, and a definition for morality. (Three Ways of
Thought in Ancient China, p.265) The Confucianists believed in the theory of rule by self-
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restraint, promoting the sacredness of hierarchy, and the virtue of loyalty. Confucius believed
that in order to govern others, one must first govern himself. “Let a ruler base his government
upon virtuous principles, and he will be like a pole star which remains steadfast in its place,
while all the host of stars turn toward it.” (Analects II:I) The ruler then sets the standard by
making an example to his people for all behavior.
3. Han Fei Tzu and Legalism
Han Fei Tzu was born a prince of Han in 280 BC. Unlike Confucius, he was born to a
noble family and never had a taste of how lower class people suffered. He studied under a
Confucian master, Xun Zi, but there was a critical difference in his teacher’s belief of human
nature from Confucius. This difference set about the development of another system of
governance called Legalism. Han Fei Tzu embraced the idea that human nature is inherently evil.
Humans had to be educated before becoming any good for the state. Humans were considered
weak, easily corrupted, and Han Fei Tzu recommended that law should be used as a primary tool
to keep order and loyalty. Han Fei Tzu developed a system for rulers, using three basic tools to
govern. First,‘Fa’: “The Rule of Law” - All laws are to be made public, clearly written, and
accessible to everyone. All of the people are equal under the law. The laws reward those who
obey and punish those who break them. Laws run the state, not the ruler. Next, ‘Shu’: “Special
Tactics” -These were special means that a ruler would use to make sure that no one would start
an uprising or revolt. Third, ‘Shi’: “Power” - It is essential for the ruler to be informed because
he is in a position of power.
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Han Fei was a bitter critic of Confucius and Confucianism. “The sage does not try to
practice the ways of antiquity or abide by a fixed standard. He rather examines the affairs of the
age and takes whatever precautions are necessary to secure what people need most at the
time.” (Lives of Confucius, p. 56) Han Fei Tzu proposed that impartial law is the best way a ruler
has to govern. This was due to his conclusion that there was no other way to create order out of
the chaos of his time. “Benevolence and beneficence are significant means of mass control, but
are not ways of suppressing wickedness and outrage.” (The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu)
4. The Debate
Legalists argued that because people are inherently evil and lazy, people need a strong
ruler with a carefully planned code of laws. If laws are written well, there would be no need for
individual leadership, because laws alone are sufficient to rule a state. Infractions against the law,
no matter how small, would be punished harshly. Laws should also rule supreme over the ruler.
Han Fei believed that “the benefit of the people lay in the ruthless control of individual
selfishness”. (Hooker: Legalism) Everyone in a Legalist state had to act for the welfare of the
state. But that is not to say the Legalists believed in a welfare state. Legalism supported the
notion that hard work and frugal living offered rewards, while poverty and destitution were the
result of laziness or extravagant living. On the other side, Confucianists believed that every
human is born with te, or moral virtue, and that leaders rule by example of benevolence, ren, and
goodness. “Power is something to be wielded for the benefit of the people.”(Hooker) Confucius
also believed in ritual and tradition, music and dance, to achieve a harmony, or heavenly pattern.
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5. What Worked and What Did Not
The Qin Dynasty took the philosophy of Han Fei Tzu, adapted it, and put it into use.
Under Qin, China became unified, structured and stricter. Important unifying structures were
established such as standardized legal codes, bureaucratic procedures, a standard form of
calligraphy, one currency and also a pattern of thought and schooling. The central government
became stronger than ever before. Perhaps the severity of Qin cut both ways. For a powerful
Dynasty to emerge from the violence of the Warring States, and achieve the unity that Qin
desired, took harsh measures. But the Emperor went too far when he ended the freedom of
expression and ordered all evidence of philosophies competing with Legalism be destroyed.
During this time Confucianism was stumped. Scholars were put to death and their books were
burned. Confucianism, along with other schools of thought, went ‘underground’ during this
period of time. Where Confucianism saw the role of government as highly important, the ruler
had to be good for people to follow and obey him. Government existed for the benefit of the
people. In Legalism, the people existed to serve the government, which came before anything
and anyone else. The Qin Emperor became corrupted with power and self interest. The Qin
Dynasty did not last long. As soon as the Qin Emperor died, his empire fell to revolt. The Qin
form of Legalism had bred fear, mistrust and suspicion among the people. Court officials were
corrupt. It encouraged spying and for neighbor to turn upon neighbor. Han Fei’s “Laws with
Teeth” could restrain evil, but could not change attitude; they did nothing to educate the heart.
This thought of Confucius foreshadows the downfall of the Qin Dynasty. “To govern simply by
statute and to reduce all order by means of pains and penalties is to render the people evasive and
devoid of any sense of shame.” (World’s Greatest Scriptures, from Analects Book ll, p. 231)
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Confucianism as a sole system of governance was never realized. One of the flaws of
Confucianism is that it did not address pure evil. “Confucianism, by promoting unquestioning
loyalty towards authority, encouraged the powerful to abuse their power, despite Confucianism’s
reliance on ritual morality as a mandate for power. Confucianism is therefore inescapably the
victim of it’s own defense.” (AsiaTimes, The Rule of Law vs Confucianism) For Legalism, the
strategy for control was based on the idea that if good and bad are relative positions, then as a
ruler, you can define them anyway you want. To make sure your definitions are upheld, you
reward the good, and punish the bad, and people will do what you want. What failed for the
Legalists was that the system of laws was as only as good as the ruler. On top of that, rulers did
not want to be subject to their own laws. With the rule of law, rulers lose the right to be arbitrary.
But the early Han ruler, Liu Bang, recognized the shortcomings and also the great
advances realized by the Qin Empire. “I hereby promise you a code of laws consisting of three
articles only: he who kills anyone shall suffer death; he wounds another or steals shall be
punished according to the gravity of the offense; for the rest I hereby abolish all laws of
Qin.” (De Bary, from Shiji pg. 233) The Han Dynasty built its strengths upon what worked for
the Qin Dynasty. Legalism had unified China with effective systems to govern the growing
empire. Some of the laws were retained, while the most cruel were thrown out. Confucian ideas
gained more importance as the Han Dynasty matured. Rewards and punishments were used for
common people. Administrators were judged based on Confucian principles. The Han believed
that force alone was not a sufficient way to rule morally. The Emperor needed Confucian
scholars to offer moral advice. By the time of Han Wudi in 140 BC, the works of Confucius were
made the official imperial philosophy and required reading for civil service examinations. This
solved the problem of establishing a common moral ethic, changing attitudes and educating the
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heart of the entire populace, while firm laws kept order and supported a strong government. The
Han had successfully incorporated both Legalist and Confucianist principles during their
dynasty, creating a model that was in use for centuries.
The Warring states period witnessed a long-lasting fire of debate among people with
common goals but opposing beliefs. The Qin Dynasty’s failure and Han’s early success proved
that it takes the incorporation of many philosophies to find the key to the complex challenges of
ruling a country. It took time for the Han Dynasty to find a balance to solve that challenge.
What at first glance may appear to be philosophies completely at odds with one another,
Confucianism and Legalism succeeded as partners. Confucianism succeeded in building heart,
loyalty, education and obedience through knowledge and virtue, or a set of moral values.
Legalism set up a system of power, authority, and a successful system of governing which
supported a strong central government. The unification of China under the influence of these two
doctrines proved successful for ancient China, lasting thousands of years until the beginning of
Communism in modern day China.
!
How should a ruler act? This question can be directly tied to the question, How should I
act? Both questions could be answered by the same moral code, or set of humanistic values.
While we may be born with a good heart; education by family, scholarship, and community,
reinforce the active living of those values. The debate over how a ruler should act continues to
this day, demonstrated by the revolts of the people in North Africa and the Middle East. We can
see a parallel between the unhappiness of people in the Qin Dynasty and the unhappiness of
people in extreme regimes, such as Libya’s Qadaffi regime. The success of the Western Han
Dynasty might suggest that a ruler look to history and examine the successes and failures of
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other forms of government and philosophies, adapting methods to solve the unique problems of
their country. The answer may lie in the achievement of harmony, or a certain heavenly pattern.
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Bibliography
Primary Sources
Ames, Roger T. The Art of Rulership: a Study in Ancient Chinese Political Thought. Albany:
State University of New York, 1994. Print.
This translation of an early Han Dynasty treatise on political philosophy, included in the
Huai Nan Tzu anthology book, offers an insight into how the Han Dynasty melded
different 100 Schools of Thought philosophies. Harold D. Roth writes in the forward, “So
government was instituted to prevent the people from doing what they pleased, the ruler
to prevent the government from doing what it pleased, laws, etc. to prevent the ruler form
doing what he pleased. This synthesis established the necessity of government, a ruler,
and laws, contra Lao Tzu, yet makes the ruler himself subject to these laws, contra the
Legalists. The Confucian advocacy of a code of moral conduct is also incorporated. The
Taoist cosmological framework and political agenda consistent with the Lao Tzu,
however, predominate in the author’s insistence that the ultimate purpose of all these
measures and institutions is to enable people to spontaneously follow their innate
tendency to comply with the natural guidelines of the Tao and thus live harmoniously.”
Bamboo strips, mid-4th century B.C., Jingzhou Museum.
"Teaching Chinese Archaeology, Object 13 - NGA." National Gallery of Art. n.d. Web. 6 May
2011.
This site offers pictures of authentic items relating to the historical time of my study. The
photo of bamboo strips is not unlike what was used to record the teachings of the Warring
States philosophers.
The National Gallery of Art is located in Washington DC. The National Gallery of Art
was created in 1937 for the people of the United States of America by a joint resolution
of Congress, accepting the gift of financier and art collector Andrew W. Mellon.
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Browne, Lewis. The World's Great Scriptures; an Anthology of the Sacred Books of the Ten
Principal Religions,. New York: Macmillan, 1946. Print.
This book provides extensive translated excerpts from original texts. This book is a great
resource with good illustrations from the period. The information relating to
Confucianism and Confucius is arranged in such a way that to make the material more
vivid and interesting.
Ch’ien, Ssu-ma. The Grand Scribes Records Volume VII, The Memoirs of Pre Han China. Ed.
William H. Nienhauser, Jr. Trans. Tsai-fa Cheng, Zongli Lu, and Robert Reynolds.
Indiana UP, 1994. Print.
The Lords that serve Qin achieve great accomplishments, and for their loyalty, each
descriptive paragraph of their triumph ends with a short statement “His merit
accomplished, he was torn apart by chariots....he was granted a sword and death at the
Tu.....he was dismembered.....in the end betrayed and killed...”
Confucius, and Arthur Waley. The Analects of Confucius. New York: Vintage, 1989. Print.
In this book, Arthur Waley offers an easy to grasp translation of the Analects. His
introduction is also helpful in understanding the challenges of translating a work from a
language so different in expression from our own.
Confucius, and Thomas F. Cleary. The Essential Confucius: the Heart of Confucius' Teachings in
Authentic I Ching Order : a Compendium of Ethical Wisdom. San Francisco:
HarperSanFrancisco, 1992. Print.
The sayings of Confucius are grouped in I Ching order. This arrangement provides a way
to understand Confucius’ sayings by subject or category. Parallels are drawn between
Confucian philosophy and the Book of Change.
De Bary, William Theodore, Irene Bloom, Wing-tsit Chan, Joseph Adler, and Richard John
Lufrano. Sources of Chinese Tradition. New York: Columbia UP, 1999. Print.
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The sections in this book on “The Evolution of The Confucian Tradition in Antiquity” and
“The Han Reaction to Qin Absolutism” provide a sense of how the people (nobles and
commoners) thought about the Qin government.
Duyvendak, Jan J. The Book of Lord Shang. London: Probsthain, 1963. Print.
This book is a collection of work written by Shang Yang (390-338 BC), and his disciples,
and considered one of the two principal sources of Legalism along with Han Fei Tzu.
Han Fei-Tzu, and W. K. Liao. The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu: a Classic of Chinese
Legalism. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1939. Print.
This is a collection of the complete works translated by W. K. Liao. This work helped me
understand a more complete picture of his Legalist or Realist philosophy and get to
understand the man better.
Han Fei Tzu. "Reading--The Legalist Ruler-From Han Feizi." Historyteacher.net. Trans. Burton
Watson. Susan M. Pojer. n.d. Web. 2 Dec. 2010.
This website page features a good translation of the classic Han Fei tale supporting the
Realist philosophy based on the translation by Burton Watson. This is an excellent story
that explains the basic principles of Realism.
Susan Pojer is a teacher from Horace Greeley High School in Chappaqua, New York.
This is her school sponsored website. Horace Greely is a public, four-year secondary
school serving the Chappaqua School District in New York.
Han Fei Tzu, and Rex Pay. "Han FeiTzu." Humanistic Texts. Rex Pay, Humanistic Texts, 2003.
Web. 2 Dec. 2010.
The author of Humanistic Texts gathered information from the Complete Works of Han
Fei Tzu and presented the information in seven easy to understand sections. This site
supported my reading of the original text of Han Fei as translated by W.K. Liao.
Rex Pay established and maintains this site. “Humanistic Texts shows how people around
the world gradually develop an understanding of what it is to be human. Multicultural
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extracts portray the wit, wisdom, and poetry of individuals as they reflect on ethics,
philosophy, knowledge, and human relationships.” according to Rex Pay.
Hessler, Peter, and O. Louis Mazzatenta. "Treasures of Ancient China — National Geographic
Magazine." National Geographic Magazine. National Geographic Society, Nov. 2001.
Web. 8 May 2011.
The National Geographic Society sponsors this website where I found this article. There
are several excellent photos of artifacts found in the tomb of Qin Shi Huang Di.
"Historical Records - A Classic Masterpiece for Comprehending the Ancient Chinese History China Culture." History - China Culture. Shanghai News and Press Bureau and Hongtu
Real Estate Development Company, One Member of Long River Foreign Exchange
Company. n.d. Web. 09 May 2011.
This site is really great for viewing images of authentic historical records and images in
history of notable persons.
According to the “About Us” section, www.cultural-china.com is a non-profit cultural
website initiated by Shanghai News and Press Bureau and undertaken by Hongtu Real
Estate Development Company, one member of the Long River Foreign Exchange
Foundation. “Cultural-china is dedicated in the promotion and familiarization of the
Chinese culture in a global scale. We serve the Chinese culture's "Going Global" national
strategy while bearing introducing the Chinese culture to the world arena; promote the
cultural exchange and communication based on the internet platform; provide
information and marketing service related to the Chinese cultural industry as our major
objectives. To let the world to know more about the real and modern China and the
Chinese culture is our one and only mission.”
Minford, John. Classical Chinese Literature. an Anthology of Translations : from Antiquity to the
Tang Dynasty. New York (N.Y.): Columbia UP, 2000. Print.
This book is a large collection of prose and poetry from Ancient China. Mei Sheng wrote
The Seven Exhortations to Rise, a “rhetorical technique of satirical criticism” known as
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feng. Translated by John Scott, the poem has a section where “The courtier said, “Then
let me summon men of skill and knowledge, schooled in policy and debate...” and he
goes on to list some of the 100 schools philosophers and what they could do for the
Prince, whereupon the Prince recovers!
Mo, Di, Xunzi, Fei Han, and Burton Watson. Basic Writings of Mo Tzu, Hsün Tzu, and Han Fei
Tzu,. New York: Columbia UP, 1964. Print.
The translations by Burton Watson are accessible and easy to understand. Mr. Watson’s
notes give insight into how the original text can be misinterpreted based on translation.
See page 35. The timeline chart is very clear for reference.
"Museum of the Terra-cotta Warriors and Horses of Qin Shihuang--Beta." 秦始皇兵马俑博物
馆. n.d. Web. 03 May 2011.
You can navigate Qin Shanguandi’s tomb room by room through this website! Great
detail is shown to costume, weapons and even coinage of the period.
According to Asia for Educators, an initiative of the Weatherhead East Asian Institute at
Columbia University, New York, New York, “This is the website of the official Qin
Shihuangdi tomb site museum and an excellent resource for information about the more
than 8,000 clay warrior figures and 10,000 bronze weapons that have been found in the
tomb. This is the English version of the website; the Chinese version has even more
information.”
Qi Gong, ed., Zhongguo meishu quanji, Shufa jianke bian 1: Shang Zhou zhi Qin Han shufa
(Beijing: Renmin meishu chubanshe, 1987), p. 22. (Introduction)
Qi Gong, ed., Zhongguo meishu quanji, Shufa jianke bian, 1: Shang Zhou zhi Qin Han shufa
(Beijing: Renmin meishu chubanshe, 1987), pl. 54, p. 79. Collection of the Gansu
Provincial Institute of Cultural Antiquities (Wenwu kaogu yanjiu suo).
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley."Calligraphy Script Types." A Visual Sourcebook of Chinese Civilization.
n.d. Web. 8 May 2011.
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The Yi shan memorial stele inscription, Qin dynasty, is pictured on this page. Also
pictured is a photo of bamboo strips with writing. This site is a great resource for images
of historical objects relevant to Warring States, Qin Dynasty and Han Dynasty. Seeing the
objects makes the telling of the history come to life.
Patricia Ebrey is a Professor at the University of Washington in Seattle, WA. She is the
author of The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. This website project “was made
possible by financial support from the Education Division of the National Endowment for
the Humanities, an independent federal agency, the Freeman Foundation, and the Chiang
Ching- Kuo Foundation.”
Sima, Qian, and Burton Watson. Records of the Grand Historian of China. New York: Columbia
UP, 1993. Print.
Sima Qian’s gift for expression makes this history book read like a compelling novel. It
makes the stories interesting and, in a sense, fun to read, shining a different light on
China’s history, instead of the dull textbook style of writing!
Sturgeon, Donald. "先秦兩漢 Pre Qin and Han." Chinese Text Project. Donald Sturgeon. n.d.
Web. May-June 2011.
Donald Sturgeon, doctoral philosophy student at the University of Hong Kong, is the
author and administrator of the Chinese Text Project. Not all the entries are translated, but
some translations from the chinese can be read for comparison.
"Virtual Confucius." China 360 Online. China Institute. n.d. Web. 09 May 2011.
This site has many features for students and educators, such as searching resources
according to student’s age, category of research. I enjoyed this section offering a China
Institute Gallery tour of historical items relating to Confucius.
Founded in 1926 with a physical location of 125 East 65th Street, New York, NY 10065.
Funders include: Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters, The Hearst Foundations,
SVC, East China Normal University, HSBC, National Endowment for the Humanities,
The Starr Foundation, The Freeman Foundation.
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Xin Zhongguo chutu wenwu (Beijing: Waiwen chubanshe, 1972), illustration #94.
Zhonghuarenmingongheguo chutu wenwu zhanlan (Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe, 1973), p. 68.
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. "HAN TOMB OF LIU SHENG." A Visual Sourcebook of Chinese
Civilization. Education Division of the National Endowment for the Humanities, The
Freeman Foundation and the Chiang Ching-Kuo Foundation. Web. 8 May 2011.
With these pages you can place yourself in the tomb of Liu Sheng! Professor Patricia
Ebrey teaches at the University of Washington in Seattle, WA. She is the author of The
Cambridge Illustrated History of China. This website project “was made possible by
financial support from the Education Division of the National Endowment for the
Humanities, an independent federal agency, the Freeman Foundation, and the Chiang
Ching- Kuo Foundation.”
Yanyan, Song. "Murals During the Qin and Han Dynasties." ChinaCulture.org. Ministry of
Culture, P.R. China, 2009. Web. 8 May 2011.
The images of historic murals depict aspects of life during Qin and Han dynasties. There
is a great lot of information on this site generated by the Chinese Government. The
images were of particular interest to me.
I happened onto this site through a link on the Chinese Ministry of Culture website. The
sponsor of this site appears to be the Ministry of Culture, P.R. China.
Secondary Sources
"China: Traditions and Transformations." Lecture. HIST E-1825 China: Traditions and
Transformations. Harvard University Extension School. Web. 2 Dec. 2010.
In this lecture Dr. William C. Kirby, PhD, T. M. Chang Professor of China Studies,
Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Spangler Family Professor of Business
Administration, Harvard Business School, and Harvard University Distinguished Service
Professor offers an insight into the 100 Schools of Thought and what gave rise to such a
rich period of philosophical exchange of ideas for a unified country. I appreciate how he
is able to compare some of the problems early China faced to present day issues.
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Sponsor is Harvard Extension School, and the President and Fellows of Harvard College.
"Competing Schools and Warring States." Lecture. Asia For Educators An Initiative of the
Weatherhead East Asian Institute at Columbia University/ For Students and Educators At
All Levels. Web. 19 Oct. 2010.
This site provides a link to the Harvard lectures through the Open Learning Initiative.
This is a great resource for many topics concerning early China.
Sponsored by Harvard University, Harvard Extension School offers an “open and
comprehensive academic curriculum, with courses and programs to meet the interests and
needs of a diverse public.”
Confucius Words Of Wisdom DVD. By Confucius. Dir. Agnes Nixon. Prod. David M. Barsky.
Perf. Julia Ching, Roger T Ames, Tu Weiming. AETN Television Networks, 1996. DVD.
This production is rich in interviews with leading scholars, imagery and art work relating
to the period as well as information supporting an exploration into the life and legacy of
Confucius. This movie supported me in understanding Confucius; life and goals.
Hooker, Richard. "Chinese Philosophy: Legalism." World Civilizations - An Internet Classroom
and Anthology. Washington State University - Pullman, Washington, 6 June 1999. Web.
19 Oct. 2010.
This page on Chinese Philosophy: Legalism is published by Washington State University.
It offers an overview of Legalism and some comparisons to Confucianism. It also
discusses the ‘fusion of rival schools’ of thought under the Han Dynasty.
The Chinese Philosophy pages are principally authored by Richard Hooker,
professor. This site takes the shape of a research textbook for students.
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Liu, Henry C K. "Asia Times - The Abduction of Modernity Part 3: Rule of Law vs
Confucianism." Asia Times Online :: Asian News Hub Providing the Latest News and
Analysis from Asia. Asia Times Online Co, Ltd. Web. 19 Oct. 2010.
This lengthy article offers an overview of Confucianism versus the rule of law and
discusses the success and failures of Confucianism.
Asia Times is an online resource that looks at issues from an Asian perspective. Founded
in 1999, it is incorporated and registered in Hong Kong. It is the successor of Asia Times,
the Hong Kong/ Bangkok-based daily print newspaper founded in 1995.
Loewe, Michael, and Edward L. Shaughnessy. "The Cambridge History of Ancient China: from
the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C." Google Books. Ed. Michael Loewe and Edward
L. Shaughnessy. Cambridge University Press. Web. 14 Jan. 2011.
I used this resource to confirm the dates of the Waring States Period against my other
resources. Google Books allows me to view printed material that is not always available
through my library.
Nylan, Michael, and Thomas A. Wilson. Lives of Confucius: Civilization's Greatest Sage through
the Ages. New York: Doubleday, 2010. Print.
This book is a history of the life and influence of Confucius. The chapter on Kongzi and
His Critics was especially helpful. The section discussing Han Fei Tzu and his criticisms
of Confucius was entertaining and insightful.
Smith, Huston. "Confucianism." The Illustrated World's Religions: a Guide to Our Wisdom
Traditions. [San Francisco]: HarperSanFrancisco, 1994. 98-121. Print.
Huston Smith writes about World religions. In several chapters dedicated to Confucius
and the Confucian Project, he offers a vivid portrayal about the times that Confucius lived
and what motivated him to create his philosophy of purposeful living and government.
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This book provided me with a basic understanding of Confucianism. Huston Smith also
writes about and compares the Realists and the Daoists.
Spielvogel, Jackson J. "Early China." World History: Journey across Time. New York: Glencoe/
McGraw-Hill, 2008. 232-48. Print.
A concise overview of Confucianism and Legalism. A good introductory tool with great
images.
Waley, Arthur. Three Ways of Thought in Ancient China. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1982. Print.
This book examines three ways of thought from the period of the 100 School of Thought
in early China. The two chapters that support my research are the chapters on Mencius
and The Realists. The translations are accessible and well annotated for further research.