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CHURCHILL’S WAR MINISTRY Contents 1. Topic Area Summary and Chairperson’s Address……………………………………………….…page 3 2. World War I.................................................................................................................................................page 6 i. ii. iii. iv. A Brief Summary Causes Course of the War a. Eastern Front b. Western Front Effects 3. Treaty of Versailles..................................................................................................................................page 8 i. Terms and conditions 4. League of Nations..................................................................................................................................page 11 i. ii. Functions Causes for its failure 5. Britain during the Inter-War years.................................................................................................page 13 i. Economic Conditions ii. Political Conditions a. Major political parties b. Foreign Policy c. Policy of Appeasement Munich Conference 6. Conditions of the Allied-Axis Powers during the inter-war period..................................page 19 i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Germany USSR USA France Italy Japan 1 7. Hitler's invasion of Poland..................................................................................................................page 29 8. Course of the Second World War till May 1940- Timeline of events...............................page 30 9. Germany’s military strength………………………………………………………………………………page 31 10. Britain's military strength...............................................................................................................page 33 11. Overseas territories............................................................................................................................page 35 i. Situation in India ii. Situation in Palestine iii. Contribution of the commonwealth countries to Britain's war efforts 12. Prime Minister's Address.................................................................................................................page 41 Topic Area Summary Agenda: Determining the British course of action in the Second World War 2 In 1938, when war was inevitable, Hitler had invited Chamberlain and Daladier to a four power conference which met in Munich (29 September 1938). After the acceptance of the proposal made by Mussolini and the German Foreign office, the Munich conference ended in a success. Chamberlain had remarked, “I believe it is peace for our times.” However, Churchill called the Munich Conference a total and unmitigated defeat. Duff Cooper, the First Lord of the British Admiralty, resigned from the cabinet, saying that Hitler could not be trusted to keep the agreement. In 1939, Hitler did break his promise and seized non German territories. This action could not be justified by the Appeasers, France and Britain and Chamberlain’s attitude hardened. On 24th august, 1939, Hitler signed a non aggression pact with the USSR. It was also agreed that Poland would be divided between Germany and USSR. Hitler was convinced of Russia’s neutrality and was certain and that France and Britain would not risk an intervention. A full scale German invasion of Poland began on 1st September, 1939. Chamberlain had still not completely thrown off his policy of appeasement and suggested that if German troops were withdrawn, a conference could be held to establish peace. With no response from the Germans and pressure mounting in the parliament and in the nation, Chamberlain sent an ultimatum to Germany. When this expired at 11 a.m. on 3rd September 1939, Britain was at war with Germany. Soon afterwards, France also declared war. With the commencement of the Second World War, the whole of Europe and the entire world at a later stage was drawn into grave atrocity and economic depression. At that point of time, Britain followed a policy of colonization. The colonies in Asia and Africa took this opportunity to revolt against their colonial masters. With the Mandate of Palestine bestowed on Britain by the League of Nations, Britain was the official government in Palestine. The Zionist Jews wanted Palestine to themselves. A separation plan was in operation and the State of Israel was to be created. The Arabs and the Turks opposed the idea of division of Palestine. The entire Arab League headed by Egypt and Syria decided to overthrow the Jews and oust the British government in 1944.Similarly in India, the Quit India Movement was taking it's toll on the British rulers. With German and Italian troops marching their way towards London and tremendous international pressure, it is time for the government to act. In these perilous times, the British War Ministry headed by Prime Minister, Mr. Winston Churchill calls upon a summit to gather British intelligence, carefully plan the course of action to be taken against the formidable enemies and decide on the fate of the overseas colonies. Chairperson’s Address 3 "If you will not fight for right when you can easily win without bloodshed; if you will not fight when your victory is sure and not too costly; you may come to the moment when you will have to fight with all the odds against you and only a precarious chance of survival. There may even be a worse case. You may have to fight when there is no hope of victory, because it is better to perish than to live as slaves."- Winston Churchill. Dear Delegates, It is with great pleasure that I welcome you to what will be one of the most intense and incendiary committees being simulated at LMCMUN 2015.This year we will be simulating the British War Cabinet under the leadership of Prime Minister, Mr. Winston Churchill. As officials in the war ministry, you are expected to meet and handle skillfully and tactfully the constant endangering challenges in the face of adversity and hardships. While the United Kingdom has declared war on Nazi Germany only months earlier, French territories are being invaded by the German troops. The former prime minister of the United Kingdom, Mr. N. Chamberlain has only just handed in his resignation while the eastern overseas colonies demand for complete independence. With the Arabs revolting against the Mandate of Palestine which gives Britain the authority to govern over Palestinian land, Europe finds itself in the midst of yet another World War. Since this will be a constant crisis committee, delegates are expected to be well versed with the then present scenario of Europe in May 1940, and the significant events that occurred during that period of time. Delegates must improvise on concrete military strategies and comprehensive military attack plans to guide British actions in the war. Committee will be simulated on the 12th day of May, 1940 on the third day of Mr. Churchill holding office. It is my utmost privilege to be chairing this war cabinet. My name is Shanika Bhowmick and I am a twelfth grade student, studying commerce. I aspire to study Law or Economics in the future. My interests range from swimming and rowing to debating and listening to good music. I am an optimist, self proclaimed food connoisseur, voracious reader of the sciences, psychology and history. MUNing has been a constant passion throughout my school life and I enjoy rereading the Harry Potter series in my leisure time. The committee will be directed by Roshni Chakraborty, one of the most genuine and humble people I have had the pleasure of encountering. Roshni is an eleventh grade student. She is a national level spell - bee winner. She takes interest in quizzing and reading, historic topics being her favorite genre. Roshni is a very passionate debater and a seasoned MUNer. She is a skilled pianist and enjoys watching football. Saheli Chatterjee is the rapporteur of this committee. A student of class twelve, she is currently studying humanities and plans on pursuing History in the future. She is a passionate swimmer, Sherlock aficionado, and savors KFC burgers. She is a very hard working and diligent board member and is also an ardent lover of the Canis species. Aratrika Brahmachari, your assistant director is in class eleven. She enjoys reading on various subjects. She is a very talented speaker and enjoys debating. Aratrika likes researching and is the research bank for our committee. She also follows tennis and is probably the most approachable board member. 4 Please feel free to contact any of us if you have an queries regarding the committee or questions about preparation. I wish you all luck in preparing for this committee and look forward to three days of constructive debate in May. Best Wishes Shanika Bhowmick - Chairperson of CHURCHILL'S WAR MINISTRY [email protected] Contact Number: +91 9830578575 5 World War I British soldiers during World War I The First World War was known as the Great War because all the nations of the world were directly or indirectly involved in it. The war spanned from 28 July 1914- 11 November 1918, and ended in a tactical stalemate. The two major armed camps involved in the war were:1. The Triple Alliance/ Central Powers ( Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy which switched to the Allies later, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire) 2. Triple Entente/Allied powers( United Kingdom, France, Russia, Japan, USA, Italy which joined from the Central powers) The War was much more devastating than any other fought till then due to better warfare and modern weaponry like machine guns, tanks and use of chemical weapons. Causes of the First World War The World War started due to various causes. Some of the causes were: Imperial policies of UK and France Germany’s thirst for conquests and Militant Nationalism Armament race Absence of an international peace keeping body However, the immediate cause of the First World War was the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a student revolutionary called Gavrilo Princep in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia on 28th June, 1914. Although Princep was a Bosnian subject, the assassination had been planned by a patriotic terrorist organization situated in Serbia, known as the Black Hands. A diplomatic crisis ensued, since Austria Hungary now had no heir to ascend the throne after the death of the then present Duke and Serbia was blamed for the assassination of the Duke. As a result of this, Austria- Hungary issued a severe ultimatum against Serbia, which ordered Serbia to hand over Gavrilo Princep and all those connected to the assassination of the Archduke to the 6 Austro-Hungarian government. The ultimatum sought for a ban on all publications of anti-Austrian articles and the suppression of anti-Austrian sentiments. Serbia refused to accept the ultimatum on grounds that it involved violation of its sovereignty. Course of the War Germany declared its support for Austria-Hungary and was ready to take action against Serbia. Serbia appealed to Russia for assistance and joined forces with Russia. Germany divided its armies into two fronts- Western and Eastern. One countered the Russian forces in the East while the other invaded the neutral nations of Belgium and Luxembourg and marched towards France, who was Britain’s ally. This resulted in Britain declaring war on Germany. Germany’s policy of unchecked U-boat submarine aggression against shipping interests was what brought the United States into the war in 1917. Germany sunk approximately 8-10 U.S. merchant ships and finally on 2nd April,1915, President Woodrow declared war against Germany. On 4th November,1918, Austria Hungary agreed to make an armistice with Germany. Germany was then coerced into seeking an armistice on 11th November, 1918, thus ending the war. Western Front According to an aggressive military policy also known as the Schlieffen Plan, Germany fought on two fronts- One invading France through neutral Belgium and the other confronting Russia in the East. In the First Battle of Marne ( September, 1914 ) , the French and British armies terminated Germany’s plans of invasion in France by halting the German march to Paris. Eastern Front On the Eastern Front, the Russian forces invaded East Prussia and German- occupied Poland, but were stopped by German and Austrian forces in the Battle of Tannenburg in late August, 1914. Russia’s inability to break through German lines resulted in discontent among the civilians of Russia and hostility towards the imperialist regime. Post War After the end of the war, four major imperial powers lapsed- Germany, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary. There were major territorial rearrangements in Europe and Southwest Asia. There was a Peace Conference which took place in Paris in 1919 where the Allied leaders (The Big Four) imposed their terms in the form of treaties and desired to build a post-war world safeguarding itself against such conflicts in the future. A global organization, the League of Nations was formed to prevent worldwide turmoil. However, the League of Nations failed due to various causes such as weakened states, economic depressions, recession, European nationalism, Fascism and Nazism. A treaty called the Treaty Of Versailles was drafted on 28th June,1919, by the Big Four. The terms were harsh and unfair towards Germany, and made the Treaty of Versailles one of the main causes of the Second World War. 7 Treaty of Versailles World War I officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919. Its 15 parts and 440 articles reassigned German boundaries and assigned liability for reparations. After strict enforcement for five years, the French assented to the modification of important provisions. Germany agreed to pay reparations under the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan, but those plans were cancelled in 1932, and Hitler’s rise to power and subsequent actions rendered moot the remaining terms of the treaty. The peace conference that led to the Treaty of Versailles began its deliberations in Paris in January 1919. The proceedings were dominated by the French Premier Georges Clemenceau and the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George. The treaty, negotiated between January and June 1919 in Paris, was written by the Allies with almost no participation by the Germans. The important clauses of the treaty are : • • • • • • • Part I created the Covenant of the League of Nations, which Germany was not allowed to join until 1926. Part II specified Germany’s new boundaries, redistributing Germany’s territories among other European countries such as Poland and Belgium. Part III stipulated a demilitarized zone and separated the Saar from Germany for fifteen years. Part IV stripped Germany of all its colonies. Part V reduced Germany’s armed forces to very low levels and prohibited Germany from possessing certain classes of weapons, while committing the Allies to eventual disarmament as well. Part VIII established Germany’s liability for reparations without stating a specific figure and began with Article 231, in which Germany accepted the responsibility of itself and its allies for the losses and damages of the Allies “as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.” Part IX imposed numerous other financial obligations upon Germany. 8 The Treaty of Versailles being framed at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 Terms and Conditions Instrumental in determining international relations and the status quo of the following decade, the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles ultimately paved the way to the Second World War. The key aspects of the treaty are identified below: Germany was declared to be guilty of aggression during the course of the First World War, by the Allies and as a result was forced to pay a war indemnity estimated at 6.6 billion pounds as reparations for damages done during the war. The aim of the treaty was to completely demilitarize Germany, so as to prevent it from ever threatening world peace again. Germany’s military strength was completely crippled. The German army was restricted to strength of a 100,000 soldiers and the navy was limited to six cruisers, two old battleships and some smaller ships for port duties. Submarines were not allowed to operate. The air force was completely banned along with heavy artillery. Germany was neither allowed to construct nor purchase from outside tanks or armored cars. In order to prevent an attack on France by Germany, the area of the Rhineland was completely demilitarized. All existing fortifications were required to be demolished and no new fortifications were allowed to be constructed. The area to the west of the Rhineland was to be occupied the Allied troops for the next 15 years to ensure German compliance and obedience of the terms of the treaty. Germany was to pay for the cost of the Allied troops stationed in this area. Germany had to endure heavy territorial losses not only within Europe but even her overseas colonies were annexed by the Allies. Germany lost almost 2, 50,000 square kilometers of land. i. Internally, France retrieved the territories of Alsace and Lorraine which she had lost to Germany in the Franco Prussian war of 1871. ii. In order to compensate France for the deliberate bombing of her coal mines by the Germans in 1918, the French were given control of the rich coal mines in the Saar basin, which belonged to Germany. 9 iii. Germany had to cede large parts of the industrial areas of Silesia to Poland. The city of Memel went to Lithuania. iv. Germany had to surrender the areas of Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium. v. Overseas, Cameroon and Togoland which were a part of Germany’s possessions were divided between South Africa and Britain whereas German West Africa was partitioned between Britain and France. German possessions in the Pacific went to Japan. vi. All German colonies were placed under other countries as a part of the Mandate of the League of Nations • The treaty of Versailles brought about several territorial rearrangements and completely changed the political map of Europe. Poland was recognized as an independent state and got back almost all the territories which it had lost during the war. Almost whole of west Posen was included in the newly created state of Poland. In order to increase Poland’s wealth and provide it with access to a port, the German city of Danzig was internationalized and placed under the protection of the league. The new states of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania along with many other states were created. The independence of all these states was recognized by Germany. This was part of Wilson’s Fourteen Points to create countries made up of ethnic groups, not run by foreign powers. • A ban was placed on the union of Germany and Austria. Plebiscites were held in northern Schleswig to settle the Danish-German frontier Germany was required to supply huge quantities of coal to Italy, Belgium and France for the next 10 years. The covenant of the League of Nations was also included in the Treaty. Limits were also imposed on the German Army Reserves. Men who joined the German Army had to stay in for twelve years and officers had to stay in for twenty-five years. This meant that only a limited number of men in Germany would have military training. No General Staff was allowed. The purpose of a General Staff was to plan for war. Thus no General Staff would guarantee that Germany could not make any preparations and could not initiate any future wars. 10 Territorial Rearrangements brought about by the Treaty of Versailles The League of Nations The League of Nations was created after the end of World War One at the Paris Peace Conference under the provision of the Treaty of Versailles. The League of Nation's task was to ensure that peace and stability was restored and resided in the world. The formation of the League of Nations was suggested by American President Woodrow Wilson in his fourteen-point document. The only way to avoid a repetition of a world war was to create an international body whose sole purpose was to maintain world peace and which would sort out international disputes through negotiations. Thus the League of Nations was formed in 1920 and had its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. Functions To promote international co-operation and to achieved world peace and security. To assist in the settlement of disputes amicably and without resort to war. 11 To formulate plans for establishing a system to regulate armaments and to use such arrangements for enforcement action under its authority. To maintain international relation by friendly relations through mutual understanding and partnerships among Member-states. To preserve external aggression against the territorial integrity and exercising political independence of all Members states of League of Nations. Causes for the failure of the League of Nations: Absence of Great Powers: The absence of the great powers such as Japan, Germany and Italy from the international organization weakened the league and was partly responsible for its ultimate failure. The United States of America too refused to be a part of the league. Domination of France and England: France and England dominated over the smaller countries and their problems were neglected. Rise of Dictatorships: The rise of dictatorship in Italy, Japan and Germany also weakened the chances of success of the League of Nations. Japan left the league to conquer Manchuria. When the League decided to take action against Italy on account for her aggression in Abyssinia, she left the League. The states under dictatorship continued to be the members of the League so long as their national interest was not in any way endangered and sacrificed. Limitations of Legal Methods: The League was fairly efficient in structure and probably would have worked if there had existed a realization of a community of interest. Loss of Faith in League: Small nations lost their faith in the effectiveness of The League to save them from any aggression. Each state decided to follow her own policy, the principle of security weakened and thus there was nothing to check the aggressive policy of Hitler. Constitutional Defect: In the cases of disputes brought before the council of the League under Article 11, decisions of the council had to be unanimous in order to adjudge a nation guilty of having violated the covenant by resort to war or unjustifiable aggression, In Article 15. If the decisions were not unanimous verdict under Article 11, the disputing parties were free to resume the hostilities after a period of 3 months. By allowing exceptions, the covenant seemed to compromise the transparency of the league. Lack Of Mutual Co-Operation: The member of the league lack mutual co-operation which is always essential for the success of an organization. France used the League as an instrument for providing her security from Germany; Great Britain wanted the League protecting her imperialist interest. Separate Lines of Thoughts: The League was an amalgamation of two separate lines of thoughts.” The British did not believe in enforced peace. In its proposal world peace is not mentioned and international co-operation is restricted to one limited object. These two inconsistent principles were incorporated in the fabric of the League itself and no wonder it failed. Manchurian Crisis: On the night of Sep. 18, 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria and also occupied all Japanese cities north of Mukden. Even when China requested the league to resort to direct action, the league only imposed economic sanctions which were not enough to sustain the Japanese superpower. 12 The opening session of the League of Nations Britain During the Inter-War Years Economic Conditions 13 British Economic Growth in the 1930s The interwar years were troubled not just for Britain, but for the entire world. The economic vulnerability that Britain faced during the inter war period was highly conspicuous. Growth was also slower everywhere and the 1920s were dominated by political disputes and inflations that disrupted economic growth throughout Europe, the 1930s further influenced by a business cycle downturn of exception depth and duration, a downturn that came to be known as the Slump in Britain and the Great Depression in the United States. All market economies were affected. Britain has been highly criticized due to its poor performance relative to other advanced-industrial economies. Britain did better during the First World War than the other European nations, which served as the main theatre for hostilities. On the eve of World War I, Great Britain was the world’s leading trading and lending nation. Her merchandise imports and exports were nearly a third larger than Germany’s and half as large as those of the United States. More international trade was dealt in sterling than in any other currency. Given the country’s dependence on international transactions, it is not surprising that the British economy was shaken by World War I. As Britain withdrew from several markets, the United States and Japan moved to fill the void. U.S. exports to Latin America rose by more than 75 per cent in 1916, while Japan, building on her expertise in silk production and trade, expanded its textile exports to India, China, the United States and even Britain itself. The war also impacted Britain’s international financial position. Thus, it can be concluded that, after the first world war, greater emphasis was laid on State Protection rather than Free Trade through various taxes and duties. In other economic realms, change was drastic but temporary. By the end of the war the government marketed about 80 per cent of the food consumed at home and controlled consumer prices. But within four years of the conclusion of hostilities, the entire process of State Protection had been abandoned. As shortages of strategic products became increasingly pervasive, the government took over management of firms producing munitions, coal and flour. Manufacturers were encouraged to collaborate under the supervision of the government - whose controls prevented the price mechanism from any drastic alterations. Producers were encouraged to share expertise and information. This new economic system, promoted competition, and led to the formation of trade associations that facilitated the efforts of producers to lobby more effectively for tariff protection, tax concessions, and government support for arrangements that were used to restrict output and nationalize all production in the 1920s and 1930s. 14 Among the most dramatic impacts of the war was on labor. This refers not just to the tragic death of more than 600,000 servicemen and the wounding of 1.6 million others, but also to profound changes in work organization. For the first time, scientific management techniques were used to maximize efficiency. Machine tools were imported from the United States and installed in factories. A National Government formed on August 24, dominated by Conservatives but led by the holdover Labour Premier Ramsay MacDonald, assisted in pushing through limited cuts in unemployment benefit and public sector salaries. However, all the efforts were meagre and did not bring about considerable welfare among the people. This was expressed in the famous mutiny of seamen at the naval base at Invergorden. In the 1920s, the UK economy was characterised by low growth, high unemployment and deflation. This was due to factors such as: 1. A decision to return to the gold standard in 1925, at a rate which many believe was 10-14% overvalued. This overvaluation of Sterling reduced demand for exports, leading to lower economic growth. Thus many heavy industries, such as iron and steel remained underdeveloped during this period. 2. Deflation. The overvaluation of Sterling and relatively high real interest rates contributed to periods of falling prices. This deflation increased the burden of debt and reduced spending. 3. Tight fiscal policy. In the aftermath of the First World War, UK debt reached up to 180% of GDP. To reduce debt to GDP in a period of deflation was difficult and required high primary budget surpluses. This required strict budgets, but also because of deflation and low GDP growth, it proved very difficult to reduce debt to GDP ratios. In 1931 the real GDP fell to 5% decline. There was risk of a global financial crisis, in 1931, spilling over into London markets. The Pound was overvalued and there was a fear, the government would be unable to maintain the value of Sterling. In the 1931 budget, the chancellor Lord Snowden and Ramsay MacDonald accepted the necessitating of budget cuts. Unemployment benefits were cut and public sector wages were also cut. Consequently it resulted in hostilities midst the parties, causing a split in the Labour party. By September 1931, Britain had left the gold standard and devalued the Pound. Leaving the gold standard enabled the government to pursue more expansionary monetary policy. The Treasury were able to: 1) Cut interest rates 2) Target higher inflation. In 1932, Chancellor, Neville Chamberlain, targeted returning to the 1929 price level and ending deflation. The cut in interest rates and higher inflation, enabled a rapid drop in real interest rates. Short term real interest rates fell from 9% in 1931 to 0.6% in 1933. 3) Against the dollar, the Pound was devalued 28% between 1930 and 1932. This devaluation helped UK exports and boost domestic demand, providing an economic stimulus. The new changes enabled an increase in the money supply of 34% between 1932 and 1936. The 1930s were a period of the growing suburban areas, further characterized by the growth of ‘metro15 land’. New homes were built in the London countryside, with direct rail links to Central London. U.K. was able to avoid the social and political upheaval resulting from economic crisis, often seen in other countries. Extremist parties and their policies rarely made any advancement. If the recession had been deeper, the political situation may have been very different. Political Conditions 1939 Session of the House of Commons Conservative Party The Conservative and Unionist Party was a centre-right political party in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1834, from the Tory Party, the Conservative Party was one of two dominant parties in the 19th century, along with the Liberal Party. In the 1920s, the Liberal vote greatly diminished and was replaced by the Labor party. Both Neville Chamberlain and Winston Churchill belonged to the Conservative Party, and the latter came to power on 10 May, 1940 as Prime minister and guided Britain’s war effort throughout the Second World War, following a course, completely different from the Policy of Appeasement. In comparison to other European conservative movements, British conservatism has proved itself to be unusually resilient, having succeeded in adapting itself to changing political and social agendas. The guiding principles include the promotion of private property and enterprise, the maintenance of a strong military, and the preservation of traditional cultural values and institutions. The party is essentially a coalescence of several ideological groups, the most important of which are a centrist “One Nation” bloc that stresses economic interventionism and social harmony and an economic-liberal bloc that emphasizes a free-market economy. The One-Nation Conservatives include progressives, who advocate change, and paternalists, who are more concerned with social order and authority. The membership of the modern Conservative Party is drawn heavily from the landowning and middle classes—especially businessmen, managers, and professionals. Its electoral base, however, has extended at times well beyond these groups to incorporate approximately one-third of the working class, and working-class votes were essential to the extraordinary electoral success that 16 the party enjoyed after World War I. The central party organization has tended to rely heavily on donations from corporations and wealthy individuals. Labour Party Growing out of the trade union movement and socialist political parties of the nineteenth century party, the Labour party is a centre-left political organization of the United Kingdom. The most essential doctrine of this Party was their fervent belief in 'progressive' politics, social justice, internationalism and democratic socialism. Established in 1900, the formation of the Labor Party was the result of many years of unrelenting effort by working people, trade unionists and socialists, united by the goal of changing the British Parliament to represent the interests of the common people. However this newly established party struggled to find its place in the British Parliamentarian System. The first win of the Labor Party came only in 1924, under the leadership of James Ramsay McDonald. Even without a proper majority in the House of Commons, legislation was still passed on housing, education, unemployment and social insurance. However after a disastrous election result in 1931, the labor Party spent almost a decade recovering lost ground, and it was only during the Second World War, that the Labor Party enjoyed a sustained period of power in Government. Prime Minister Winston Churchill decided to bring the other main parties into a coalition similar to that of the First World War, and Members of the Labor Party were given important posts in the Cabinet. Clement Attlee, the Leader of the Party at that point, was appointed Lord Privy Seal and a member of the war cabinet. The aggressive trade union leader Ernest Bevin, acting as Minister of Labor and National Service, directed Britain's allocation of manpower, while Herbert Morrison became Home Secretary, Hugh Dalton was Minister of Economic Warfare. While serving in coalition with the Conservatives, the Labor members of Churchill's cabinet were able put their ideals into practice, implementing a wide range of progressive social and economic reforms which did much to improve the living standards and working conditions of working-class Britons. During the war years, the Labor Party paid a great deal of attention to the internal living conditions if the country. The Labor Party was continuously active in pushing for better arrangements of housing and billeting both of evacuees and of workers transferred for war services to already congested industrial areas, for fair systems of food rationing and distribution, for more effective control of prices, and for improvements in service pay and allowances. Labor also pressed hard for better provisions for the victims of air warfare, for more and better civic and industrial restaurants and canteens, and for war-time nurseries for the children of female workers. Policy of Appeasement Britain’s foreign political ideals revolved around the concept of appeasement in the early years after the First World War. The policy of appeasement was followed by the France as well, in order to avoid wars with aggressive powers such as Japan, Italy and Germany by giving way to their demands. It meant acceding to hostile demands in order to gain peace. A major reason for the adoption for this policy was that the Western Powers believed that the Treaty of Versailles had been too harsh to the defeated powers, especially Germany. Both Neville Chamberlain and Leon Blum, the French premiere, believed that if the genuine grievances of 17 Germany were removed, Hitler would be satisfied and would take no actions to threaten world peace. They were greatly mistaken in their judgment and though it was apparent from the very beginning that Hitler would not abide by agreements reached at by rational negotiations, the countries refused to deviate from the Policy of Appeasement, since they were not prepared for war, either economically or militarily. When Neville Chamberlain became British prime minster in May 1937 he gave appeasement new drives. He believed in taking the initiative. He would find out what Hitler wanted and show that reasonable claims could be made by negotiations rather than by force. The beginning of appeasement can be marked by the omission of the Dawes and Young Plans which tried to conciliate the Germans and also with the Locarno treaties. Since then the policy of appeasement was vehemently followed, and Britain and France did nothing to prevent the following happenings: No action was taken to check the obvious German rearmament. Half hearted British action against Italian invasion of Abyssinia. The French though disturbed at the German reoccupation of the Rhineland did not mobilize their troops. They were deeply divided and ultra cautious and received no backing from the British-who were impressed by Hitler’s offer of 25 years of peace. Neither Britain nor France intervened in the Spanish civil War, though Germany and Italy had sent decisive help to Franco. Britain tried to entice Mussolini to remove his troops by officially recognising the Italian possession of Abyssinia. However, Mussolini failed to keep his side of the bargain. Britain and France protested strongly at the Anschluss between Germany and Austria (March 1938). But Britain’s lack of action encouraged Hitler to make demands on Czechoslovakia, which produced Chamberlain’s supreme act of appeasement. Appeasement reached its climax at Munich where Britain and France were so determined to avoid war with Germany that they presented Sudetenland to Hitler and so set in motion the destruction of Czechoslovakia. Appeasement had a profound effect on the way internal relations developed. Although it might have worked with some German governments with Hitler it was doomed to failure. Hitler was convinced of the complacency and weakness of Britain and France to such an extent that he was willing to risk attacking Poland thereby starting the Second World War. Appeasement was mainly a British policy with which the French did not always agree to. The French tried to establish alliance with the Russians but there was no provision for military cooperation since navy strongly distrusted the communists. France tried to settle friendly scores with Mussolini but eventually it resulted in failure of the Hoare-Laval pact, after which the French were so deeply split between left and right that no decisive foreign policy seemed possible. The Munich Conference Adolf Hitler had invited Chamberlain and Daladier to a four-power conference, which met in 18 Munich. Here a plan produced by Mussolini(but actually written by the German Foreign Office) was accepted. The Sudentenland was to be handed over to Germany immediately, Poland was given to Teschen and Hungary received Czechoslovakia. Neither the Czechs nor the Russians were invited to the conference. The Czechs were told that if they resisted the Munich decision, they would receive no help from Britain and France, even though France had guaranteed the Czech frontiers at Locarno. Given this betrayal by France and the unsympathetic attitude of Britain, Czech military resistance seemed hopeless: they had no choice but to go along with the decision of the conference. The day after the Munich Conference, Chamberlain had a private meeting with Hitler. Both sides signed a statement, prepared by Chamberlain, promising the Britain and Germany would renounce warlike intentions against each other and would use consultation to deal with any problems that might arise. Chamberlain was convinced that peace was settling in between nations and further problems and friction could be averted with the help of negotiations. However, not everyone was convinced of the peace declaration of Hitler, especially Winston Churchill. His doubts proved correct not long after, when Hitler breeched the Treaty of Versailles and attacked Poland. Munich Conference 1939 19 Conditions of the Allied-Axis Powers in the Inter-War Period Germany Hitler becomes the Chancellor of Germany At the beginning of the War in 1914, the German army was one of the most efficient and competent armies the world had ever seen. The goal of Kaiser William II was to establish a ‘Greater Germany’ and when the First World War broke out, Germany was one of the first countries to spring into action, declaring war on France on 3 September, 1914. However, it soon became apparent, that Germany was not equipped for a war which lasted for more than a few months. The economy had not been regulated and suited to the conditions of war, and although the people were initially enthusiastic about the War, Germany at the latter stages began to encounter heavy defeats at the hand of the Allies and was vastly outnumbered. Germany surrendered on November 11, 1918. The First World War officially came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919. Based on the 14 points of Woodrow Wilson, the President of the United States, the terms of the treaty were decided were decided and drafted by Italy, UK, USA and France with no participation of the Germans. It was a situation of ‘dictated peace’ in which the Germans had no say. The Treaty of Versailles was construed in a spirit of revenge and one which assigned the entire war guilt to Germany. The harshness of the terms of this treaty astounded the German people. The German people were outraged by such a treaty. The members of a proud German race could not easily forget the consequences of a war which they had lost so humiliatingly and it was indeed the terms imposed by the treaty of Versailles which fueled Hitler’s rise to power and ultimately led to the Second World War. The standard of living and political conditions in a nation are greatly determined by the level of economic stability. During the course of the War, the German economy had already undergone enormous regression. Kaiser William had already borrowed huge sums of money to pay for the war 20 effort. Combined with the heavy war indemnity and a general period of inflation and economic deterioration in Europe caused by the First World War, the German economy underwent complete collapse. During the hyperinflation of 1923, money lost all value. The system of using money as forms of payment was abolished and replaced by the barter system of exchange. The political situation was in turmoil as well. Although the Weimar Assembly established a civil democracy in Germany, the government was essentially a divided and weak one. Between 1919 and 1933; Germany had as many as 21 ministries headed by 12 chancellors. The democratically elected leaders were unable to deal with the chaos and anarchy in the country. Unemployment was rampant and agrarian and industrial strikes accompanied by riots were day to day events. It was under these circumstances that Hitler came to power. The National Socialist German Workers’ Party (abbreviated to NAZI) was established on February 24, 1920 and was led by Adolf Hitler. After the hyperinflation in 1923, and the world depression in 1931, the people in Germany were frustrated and furious at the incompetent government. The administrations’ attempts to revive the economy were completely futile, with the number of unemployed people, bordering on almost 6 million people. Since the parliament of the Weimar Republic was not constituted by any single party, enjoying an absolute majority but ten different parties each with a portion of the total electorates’ votes, concrete actions could not be taken by the government, regarding any matter. Hitler’s genius as a politician lay in his knowledge as to what could be achieved through propaganda. Hitler was acquainted with the German people in a way unlike any other leader. His impassioned speeches, which spoke of a greater, stronger Germany, inspired the demoralized German population and by 1933, there were hardly any towns in Germany, where Hitler had not spoken and spread his message to the public. Hitler aroused a sense of extreme German nationalism among the people and united the Germans with a common goal. Hitler blamed the Communists and the Jews for the defeat of Germany in the First World War and professed the myth of the Aryan race. According to Hitler, economic stagnation, unemployment, starvation and inflation could be solved only by a complete revolution of German life. Contesting the elections on these lines, the Nazi party came to power in 1933. Once President Hindenburg died on 2nd January, 1934, Hitler combined the positions of President and Chancellor and adopted the title of Fuhrer. Once Hitler came to power, in order to ensure undisputed adherence to his policies and complete freedom to execute all his plans, Hitler passed what was known as the Enabling act in 1933. According to this act, the passing of legislature, no longer required the involvement of the Reichstag, and it also gave Hitler plenary powers, which in essence entailed that Hitler would not require the consent of the Reichstag to take any action. It also specified that the laws which were enacted by the Reich government could deviate from the constitution. This eventually formed the basis of the principle Fuhrerprinzip, which signified that the Fuhrer’s word overrode all existing laws. Even though the constituent assembly was never formally abrogated, fresh laws were promulgated when it was deemed necessary, without consulting the assembly. This placed unprecedented power, in the hands of Hitler. Jews were deprived of German citizenship, all trusts were nationalized, big industries were allowed to continue but their use was put under strict state control. Strikes and lockouts were forbidden. Hitler also began re-arming Germany’s military forces ever since he came into power in 1933. Although initially this was done in secret, the plans were made public on 16 March 1935, when 21 Hitler openly denounced the clauses of the Treaty of Versailles and announced the existence of the Luftwaffe. In accordance with the policy of Appeasement, Britain and France took no action. On 7 March, 1936 Hitler then embarked upon the militarization of the Rhineland, in blatant disregard of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler preached the Gospel of the Victorious sword. He said, he who does not wish to fight, has not the right to exist in the world. After Rhineland, Hitler turned his attention towards the annexation of Austria, where the Germans lived in large numbers. On 28 March, 1938, Hitler proclaimed the union of these two nations. This annexation was almost completely peaceful since most of the Austrians were in favor of this union. The moderate international response to this union convinced Hitler that he could take more aggressive measures regarding the expansion of the Third Reich. Violence in Austria against Jews started almost instantly but a referendum held in April 1938 showed that 99.73% of the people were in favor of the union. Hitler used terms such as ‘lebensraum’, which meant living space and encirclement to cover up his acts of aggression. His ultimate goal was a Pan- European Germany comprised of the greater Aryan race. In May 1938, Hitler focused his attention on the conquest on Sudetenland, in northwestern Czechoslovakia which was home to 3 million Germans, who were clamoring for Nazi rule. Hitler claimed that the Germans were being forced to live in Sudetenland against their will and that he would liberate them. The President of Czechoslovakia however seemed unwilling to compromise and war seemed imminent. Hitler went to the extent of mobilizing his troops to invade Czechoslovakia. This immediate danger of war was averted by the Munich Conference on September 29, 1938. The heads of the four major countries, Italy, Germany, France and Britain agreed to hand over Sudetenland to Hitler in an attempt to preserve the peace. In return Germany was required to stop all acts of aggression. The president of Czechoslovakia was forced to accept this treaty, since the alternative would be to face the Germans single-handedly. Britain and France who had previously promised Czechoslovakia full support against a German invasion went back on their word and the Czechs were left to defend themselves alone. Hitler occupied Sudetenland on 1 October 1938 and on 5 March, 1939 invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia without any justification. This enraged the Western Powers. The final straw, Hitler would wreak havoc, was the German demand for the city of Danzig in Poland. Hitler’s invasion of Poland on 1 September, 1939, was what ultimately sparked off the imminent Second World War, which ultimately convinced the Western Powers that severe action had to be taken against Germany. USSR 22 The October Revolution led to the first Communist Regime in the USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics had a pivotal role to play in the First World War. Entering the war with the largest army in the world, standing at 1,400,000 soldiers, the USSR launched its first offensive in August 1914, against Germany in East Prussia. Although it managed to secure East Prussia, the Red Army met with heavy losses in the following encounters with Germany. In spite of its numerical strength, the Imperialist and inefficient Russian army was no match for the industrialized and disciplined German army. Even though in 1916, the Russians achieved considerable victories over Austria, internally the country was in turmoil. Militarization of the industry, food shortages, rampant poverty and the incompetent Czarist regime along with profound losses in the war culminated in the February Revolution of 1917 which resulted in the overthrow of the autocratic Romanov regime. One of the most significant events in the history of the USSR, which changed the course of history, was the October Revolution. During this revolution, the Bolsheviks, a group of communists devoted to the ideals of Karl Marx, led by Lenin seized power and replaced the provisional Government which in turn had replaced the Czarist regime. Once in power, Lenin and Trotsky signed the Treaty of Brest Litovsk, in March 1918 effectively ending the USSR’s participation in the First World War, thereby ending four years’ aggression with Germany. Even then the situation was not stable, with severe opposition the communist regime. This resulted in the outbreak of the civil war between the Bolsheviks who had a socialist outlook and the Mensheviks who had a capitalist outlook. The civil war severely affected production. Conditions were much worse than what they had been during the reign of the Tsar. Thus the war communism plan was replaced by the New Economic policy, which almost took a capitalist approach towards state development. In 1924, Lenin was succeeded by Joseph Stalin. His reign was synonymous with terror and trepidation. It meant complete loss of freedom for the people. Stalin’s regime was completely dictatorial. It meant loss of freedom for the people. Education and media were strictly controlled by the state. Propaganda measures were used to glorify the state and the supreme dictator Stalin. Disobedience of any of these rules was met with severe consequences. Extensive labour camps 23 called gulags were established all over USSR and Stalin was infamously known for his purges, mass killings of all opposed to the dictators’ regime. All civil liberties were suspended. It was while Stalin was carrying on his oppressive campaign against the people, that Hitler too began his ascent to power. Hitler’s campaign of expansionism and militarization, with blatant disregard for the Treaty of Versailles made a second world war a guaranteed eventuality. Hitler’s outright hatred for communism and condescension regarding Karl Marx’s ideals all pointed to the conclusion that if a war did break out, USSR would side with the Allies and work against Hitler. But defying all expectations, Hitler looked towards USSR for an alliance, mostly due to the fact that the Russian army was the only one which was massive enough to challenge German authority. Stalin, in the past had failed to reach an agreement regarding collective security with Britain and France against Nazi Germany. Thus it was faced with the prospect of defending Eastern Europe from German expansionism virtually on its own, due to which Stalin looked for an alternate policy. The policy of Appeasement followed by the western powers and their hesitance to take action against Hitler combined with Stalin’s inexplicable personal preference for Hitler lead to the signing of the Non Aggression Pact between USSR and Germany on August 23, 1939 which also came to be known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact. According to this pact the two countries would not engage in any conflict with each other for the next ten years and would consult each other on all matters of common interests. All disputes were to be solved by negotiation and arbitration. The treaty also encompassed a secret protocol which chalked out the division of eastern European territories between Germany and USSR. Thus USSR joined the war on the side of the Axis powers. The German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 which was the event which triggered off the Second World War was supported by the USSR. During this attack by Germany, the USSR too sent its troops for the annexation of Poland on 17 September 1939. As a result of the ongoing battle with Germany, the eastern Polish border was weakly defended and the Polish troops were vastly outnumbered, resulting in easy victory for the Soviets. After Poland, the Soviets sought to extend their sphere of influence over more territories in the Baltic region. In October 1939 Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania were required to sign treaties of mutual assistance with the Soviets which allowed the latter to establish military bases in all three of these countries. The Soviets were looking for a similar agreement with Finland. Since both these countries were mutually suspicious of each other and Finland refused to accept the terms of such a treaty, it resulted in the outbreak of what is commonly known as the Winter War of November 1939. The attack by the Soviet Union on Finland was deemed to be illegal and the USSR was expelled from the League of Nations. The 105 day Winter War ended with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty and the surrender of Finland. The treaty was signed on 12 March, 1940. Although Finland retained its autonomy, it had to cede large parts of its territory to the Soviet Union. USA 24 President Woodrow Wilson’s Address regarding his Fourteen Point Plan Ever since the outbreak of the First World War, the United States had maintained a policy of isolationism and neutrality. It was believed that the war in Europe would not hinder American interests. The policy of neutrality allowed the lending of support to parties involved in either side of the conflict. Trade with both sides continued without obstruction, except in the case of Germany. A British naval blockade of the German coastline prevented economic relations with Germany from continuing. It was only because of the introduction of unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany and subsequent destruction of U.S. passenger and merchant ships that USA decided to enter the War. Thus on 6 April, 1917 USA declared war on Germany. Although it fought as an independent entity, the United States fought the war in support of the Allies. Although the decision of Woodrow Wilson to enter the war was not well received by the people, the involvement of the American troops went a long way to contribute to the victory of the Allies. President Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points, which outlined the terms and conditions of achieving long lasting peace in Europe was a historical document which was taken into consideration at the Paris Peace conference, while drafting the Treaty of Versailles. The 14 Points formed the foundation of the establishment of the League of Nations even though the Senate did not ratify the Covenant of the League, as a result of which USA never became a part of the League. Due to USA’s initial policy of isolationism, the US financial system was still largely self sufficient and in 1919, USA had the largest productive capacity and the most stable economy among all countries in the world. Albeit the country underwent a minor recession in the early 1920s, the United States enjoyed its position of superiority till the Wall Street Stock Market crash of 1929.The rapid expansion of the Stock market during the 1920s, large-scale speculative activities, low wages, a struggling agrarian sector granting of excess bank loans which could not be liquidated along with excessive production of goods disproportionate to the number of buyers, all culminated in what was known as Black Tuesday on October 29, 1929. On this ominous day, millions of shares were traded, causing the loss of billions of dollars and wiping out of thousands of investors. It was this four day crash of the Stock market which caused the US economy and the rest of the industrialized world to spiral into the Great Depression. Lasting from 1929 to 1939, the Great Depression was the 25 most devastating and long lasting damaging economic slump which the Western world had ever experienced. The Great Depression started off in the United States. Consumer Spending slowed down, production activities came to a halt and the productive output reduced tremendously. Unemployment was rampant, with statistics recording 15 million unemployed people at the height of the depression. The cost of living was inordinately high. Since the United States was so integral to the international economic system and all countries were excessively dependent on the USA for aid, the Great Depression in the US caused similar conditions in most European countries as a result of the interdependence. The situation was especially severe in Germany. Germany was in the midst of recovering from the hyperinflation of 1923, when the Depression struck and threw the country into unbridled turmoil. The disastrous economic condition destabilized the political situation as well and led to social degradation. This contributed to the establishment of the Nazi regime in Germany. From 1929 to 1939, the United States of America were more focused on restoring their internal stability and assembling a semblance of economic steadiness than what was going on in the international world. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Act of Neutrality in 1939 due to which the USA had no part to play in the Second World War till 7 December, 1941. France Fall of Paris in the Battle of France,1940 Ever since the Franco-Prussian War, where the French had lost the strategically important and industrially rich provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the Germans, the relations between the two countries were extremely hostile. Consequently Germany was one of the first countries to enter the First World War, declaring war on France on 3rd August, 1914. Throughout the course of the War, the French sustained devastating losses. The Battle of Verdun, fought from February 21 to December 16, 1916 between France and Germany was the longest battle fought in the War and one of the most important events in the history of France. The failed French offensive at Chemin des Dames, which claimed 2, 50,000 lives greatly demoralized the people. The French effort in the war was renewed with vigor once again only when the US troops came to their aid and with the help of these troops, the nature of the French offensives were transformed. Although the Allied Powers won the war, France was in a condition of economic ruination. The entire northeastern quadrant of the country was annihilated, and the cost of destruction was estimated at a colossal 34 billion francs by the Reparations Commission. Another major problem 26 faced by France was a lack of manpower and a diminished labor force which implied that in the case of another war. The expense of restoration was expected to be borne mostly by the war indemnity paid by Germany, however realistically; it was possible for Germany to pay these reparations only after 1926, when the German economy had achieved a certain degree of stability. In the meantime, the French were forced to resort to borrowing from other countries to initiate the reconstruction efforts which took a heavy toll on the economy. In a period of 15 months from 19241925, France saw 6 premiers take office and resign, unable to take control of the worsening situation. It was only under Henri Poincare that France began its ascent to normalcy. Under Poincare’s leadership, by 1930, the reconstruction effort was well underway, and this along with the recovery of Alsace-Lorraine enabled France to recover and surpass its pre-war level of industrial production. Yet this prosperity was not long lasting. The Great Depression hit France in 1932, causing the same and similarly severe effects which it did in the rest of the countries. Overvalued currency, unemployment and inflation were all major setbacks. The economic reforms of the incumbent government were not reaching their desired goals either. France wished to avoid another large scale conflict and was intent on preserving peace. France was not equipped at the point, either militarily or economically to fight another war. Thus, it adopted the Policy of Appeasement. The Policy of Appeasement also ultimately led to the failure of the League of Nations since its leading members, Britain and France were unwilling to take action against aggressors. The League did nothing when Hitler occupied Austria or Italy invaded Ethiopia. The Japanese invasion of Manchuria, in China was not met with any consequences. The inability of the League to take effective measures against aggressors greatly emboldened the Axis Powers to plunge the world into another destructive war. After ignoring a series of acts of belligerence on the part of Germany, France was finally convinced of the danger posed by Hitler with the invasion of Poland. In August 1939 France had promised Poland that in the case of German aggression, it would mobilize its troops and immediately come to the assistance of Poland in a matter of 15 days. It stopped the advancement of its troops at the very first hint of aggression on the part of the Germans. A similar course of action was adopted by Britain. After the blitzkrieg in Poland, up till April 1940, no concrete action was taken by any country, including France. This period of tense anticipation, but one without active warfare has been termed as the ‘Phony War.’ Italy 27 Mussolini’s Alliance with Hitler From 1888 to 1914, Italy was a part of the Triple Alliance, comprising Germany and AustriaHungary. The countries which were party to this Pact would maintain mutual peace amongst them. Moreover Italy and Germany would have the support of each other, as well as Austria-Hungary in case of a French attack. Italy would also abstain from any involvement in a war involving AustriaHungary and Russia. This alliance between the three countries should have guaranteed the entry of Italy into the war on the side of the Germany. However, this was not how the events unfolded. Surveying and observing the events of the war, Italy waited till 26 April, 1915 to enter the war, and when it did, it did so, on the side of the Triple Entente comprising Britain, France and Russia. The main reason for this was the Treaty of London signed between Britain and Italy in 1915 according to which, if Italy declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary in a span of one month, Italy would gain several additions to her territories, including the areas of Trieste, Southern Tyrol, Dalmatia, Istria, to name a few. Despite initial victories, the Italians were soon bogged into a state of stalemate in 1916, in which it remained till the end of the war. Italy lost almost 615,000 soldiers during the War. Although the Italians had much to contribute to the victory of the Allies, at the Paris peace Conference, the interests of Italy were completely ignored. The London Pact was nullified and Italy could have no valuable additions to her territory. This insult to Italy was mostly due to Italy’s original allegiance to Germany and their delay in joining the war. However this had an extremely negative impact on the morale of the Italian people. The feeling among the Italians was that they had won the war but lost the peace. Italy was groaning under a heavy war debt and the administration was faced with the severe problems of wide-spread unemployment, epidemics and starvation, coupled with post war inflation. The unsettled economic situation resulted in frequent agrarian strikes and agrarian riots. The democratically elected governments under Nitti and Giolitti were incompetent and unable to maintain order in the country. They could not respond properly to the needs and aspirations of the people. It was in this condition of internal chaos and turmoil, that the Fascist Party under its leader Benito Mussolini took control of the situation. Fascism was unique among the radical forces, produced as a consequence of the First World War, without any definite predecessor. Fascism essentially symbolized unity, strength and authority. The Fascists believed in having single party, ruled by a dictator holding power both complete in character and unlimited in time. It was an extremely nationalistic and anti democratic movement 28 which aimed at controlling every aspect of the peoples’ lives in accordance with the wishes of the dictator. The Fascist regime tolerated no opposition. Benito Mussolini, the foremost advocate of Fascism became the Prime Minister of Italy in 1922. Although it took Mussolini some time to set up an uncompromising dictatorship, by 1928 the Assembly was pushed aside Mussolini could rule by decrees alone. When the Great Depression hit Italy in 1930, Mussolini tried to follow the theory of a ‘Corporate State’ in order to revive the economy but to little effect. Abroad, Mussolini followed an expansionist policy abroad declaring that imperialism was the internal law of life. His conquest of Libya in 1929, Somalia and Albania made Italy a dominant power in the Mediterranean region. Mussolini used brutal tactics such as poisonous gas and merciless killings to crush resistance. Italy under Mussolini also aided the right wing nationalist forces of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War. The invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 by Italy paved the way for the Berlin-RomeTokyo Axis and the Pact of Steel. By 1939, due to its exhaustive overseas missions, most of Italy’s military resources had been drained. This in addition to the ideological similarities between Mussolini and Hitler led to the conclusion of the Pact of Steel. Signed between Italy and Germany on May 22, 1939, it formalized the 1936 Rome-Berlin Axis agreement, and linked the two countries politically and militarily. The basic terms of this treaty were that the contracting parties would keep in permanent contact with each other for the purpose of agreeing on all questions regarding their common interests or the general European situation. In the case of an event where either of the parties was involved in an international conflict, the other party would immediately come to its aid. If the common interests of the two entities involved in the pact were ever endangered by international events, the two entities would immediately enter into consultations with each other for the elimination of the threat. The two countries would also provide each other with full diplomatic and political support. All disputes between these two countries would be solved by mediation and other peaceful means. However, both sides were fearful and suspicious of the other, and only sketchily shared their prospective plans. The result was both Italy and Germany, rather than acting in unison, would often “react” to the precipitate military action of the other. On 27 September 1940, Japan entered this Pact which was then called the Tripartite Pact and led to the formation of the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis. Japan Japanese Invasion of Manchuria Japan significantly benefited from the First World War, while the states of Europe were busy fighting each other. Japan took advantage of the situation, providing shipping and other goods to the Allies, and also stepped in to supply orders to Asia, which the Europeans could not fulfill. During 29 the war years, the exports of Japanese cloth almost trebled, while the merchant ships doubled in tonnage. Politically, the course initially seemed set for a fair system of democracy, when in 1925, all males in Japan were granted the right to vote. Japan had also taken a step towards normalization of relations with Britain and USA by taking active part in the Washington Conference in 1921. According to this conference, firstly, Japanese Navy was to be limited to three fifths the size of American and British navies. Secondly, Japan agreed to withdraw from Kiachow and the Shantung province of China, which she had occupied since 1914. In return she was allowed to keep the former German Pacific islands as mandates. Thirdly, the western powers promised not to build any more naval bases within striking distance of Japan. Also, USA, Japan, Britain and France agreed to guarantee the neutrality of China and to respect each other’s possessions in the Far East. However, all positive endeavors amounted to null and void when the army assumed control of the government in the 1930s. The world economic crisis beginning in 1929 affected Japan severely. Exports shrank disastrously and other countries introduced or raised tariffs against Japanese goods to safeguard their own industries. One of the most affected trades was the export of raw silk, which went mostly to USA. This was an immense blow to the Japanese farmers, who relied heavily on the production of raw silk for maintaining their livelihood. There was desperate poverty especially in the north, for which factory workers and peasants blamed the government and big business. By 1927, majority of the peasant population, attracted by fascist policies, were planning to seize power and introduce a strong nationalist government. In 1933, the Japanese began to extend their invasions from the South Manchurian Railway into the rest of north eastern China. By 1935, a large area of China, as far as Beijing(Peking), had fallen under Japanese political and commercial control, while the Chinese themselves were torn by a civil war between Chiang Kai Shek’s Kuomintang Government and the communists led by Mao Zedong. The Anti Comintern Pact was signed with Germany in 1936, the Japanese were further emboldened, invading areas of Shanghai, Nanking and Hankow. The government seemed adversely disposed to such extremism, however, these acts of intervention was devised and led by General Sugiyama, the war minister. The League of Nations had condemned all acts of violence, but in vain. Japan was no longer a member, refused to attend conferences and derive a consensus with China, and Britain, France and Russia were too busy coping with Hitler, to take notice of Japan. USA, on the other hand, stuck to the policy of isolationalism. The Immediate Cause of the Second World War: German Invasion of Poland 30 German Invasion of Poland The immediate cause of the outbreak of the Second World War in Europe in 1939 was the German invasion of Poland. France and UK had guaranteed that they would protect Poland’s territory as it was in 1939. When Germany invaded Poland, France and UK kept their promise of helping Poland with military support and declared war on Germany. Germany, under Hitler had been trying to expand and create what they saw as a Greater Germany that included all ethnic Germans. The French and the British had simply allowed this expansion, not intervening when Germany annexed Austria and then took Czechoslovakia. Since the Allies did not act, Hitler hoped that the same tolerance would be shown in the case of his invasion of Poland. One of Adolf Hitler’s first major foreign policy initiatives after coming to power was to sign a non aggression pact with Poland in January, 1934. This move did not fly with many Germans who had supported Hitler during elections, but resented the fact that Poland had received the formerly German provinces of Poznan, West Prussia and Upper Silesia according to the terms of the treaty of Versailles after the First World War. However, Hitler sought the non aggression pact in order to prevent the possibility of a French-Polish military alliance against Germany before Germany had had a chance to rearm itself. In the mid and late 1930s, France and Britain followed a foreign policy of appeasement and thus agreed to Germany’s rearmament, remilitarization of Rhineland and the annexation of Austria. In September, 1938, after signing away Czechoslovakia’s border regions, also known as Sudetanland, to Germany at the Munich Conference. In direct violation of the Munich agreement, Germany annexed the rest of Czechoslovakia in March, 1939, without giving any reason. UK and France responded to this move by guaranteeing the integrity of the Polish state. Hitler retaliated by signing a non aggression pact with the Soviet Union in 1939. The German-Soviet Pact of August, 1939, which stated that Poland was to be partitioned between the two powers, enabled Germany to attack Poland without any fear of Soviet intervention. On 1st September, 1939, Germany invaded Poland. The Polish army was defeated within weeks of the invasion. After heavy shelling and bombing, Warsaw surrendered to the Germans on 27th September, 1939. Britain and France, standing by their guarantee of Poland’s border, had declared war upon Germany on 3rd September, 1939. Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland on 17th September, 1939. 31 Timeline of the War 1939 September 1 - Germany invades Poland, initiating World War II in Europe. September 3- Honouring their guarantee of Poland’s borders, Great Britain and France declare war on Germany. September 5- USA declares neutrality in European War. September 17, 1939 - The Soviet Union invades Poland from the east. September 27–29 - Warsaw surrenders on September 27. The Polish government flees into exile via Romania. Germany and the Soviet Union divide Poland between them. November 4 – USA revises its neutral stance and allows sales of military goods to occur. November 14 - The Soviet Union is expelled from the League of Nations for aggressions against Finland. November 30, 1939–March 12, 1940 - The Soviet Union invades Finland, initiating the socalled Winter War. The Finns sue for an armistice and have to cede the northern shores of Lake Lagoda and the small Finnish coastline on the Arctic Sea to the Soviet Union. The period from September 1939 to April 1940 was termed as the ‘Phoney War’, due to the seeming lack of activity after the German blitzkrieg invasion of Poland. Even though Britain and France had declared War on Germany, no concrete actions were taken. It was a period of tense anticipation and not active war. 1940 March 19 - The British drop the first bombs on German soil as the RAF plane hits the seaplane base at Hornum. April 9–June 9 - Germany invades Denmark and Norway. Denmark surrenders on the day of the attack; Norway holds out until June 9. May 10 - Germany attacks Western Europe—France and the neutral Low Countries. Luxembourg is occupied on May 10; Because of the failure of his appeasement policies, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain resigns. Forming a coalition government, Winston Churchill replaces him. Standing alone, Churchill soon began conferring with U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt for aid to the British cause. 32 Germany’s Military Strength Hitler’s outspoken condescension and blatant disregard for the Treaty of Versailles, combined with his expansionist aims, led to a rapid growth in Germany’s military resources following his rise to power. Under the terms of the Treaty, the German Army was restricted to a force of 100,000 soldiers. One way that Hitler dealt with this issue was to allow the Sturm Abteilung (SA) to grow rapidly. By 1934 the SA had grown to a force of over 4,500,000 men. The SA was a paramilitary organization whose methods of violent intimidation played a key role in Hitler’s rise to power. When the SA lost its power, Hitler allowed the German Army to grow rapidly. In 1935 he introduced military conscription. This enabled the German Army to train 300,000 conscripts a year. By 1938 it had 36 infantry divisions of 600,000 men. When the SA lost its power, Hitler allowed the German Army to grow rapidly. In 1935 he introduced military conscription. This enabled the German Army to train 300,000 conscripts a year. By 1938 it had 36 infantry divisions of 600,000 men. In 1939 the German Army had 98 divisions available for the invasion of Poland. The Germans still had 1.5 million well-trained men available for action as well as 9 panzer divisions. Each one had 328 tanks, 8 support battalions and 6 artillery batteries. When the German Army mounted its Western Offensive in 1940, it had had 2.5 million men and 2,500 tanks. The German Army continued to grow and in June 1941 around 3 million were available for Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union. This included 142 infantry divisions, 17 panzer divisions and 4,000 tanks. The Treaty also banned all aircraft, whereas the Navy was restricted to 15,000 men and 36 ships. Submarines were not allowed to function. After Adolf Hitler came to power he made it clear that he was unwilling to keep to the terms of the peace treaties and in 1935 the Luftwaffe was created. Over the next few years, the commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe, ordered the production of a large number of fighter planes such as the Messerschmitt Bf109, the Messerschmitt 110, Junkers Stuka, Heinkel He111 and the Dornier D017 bomber. By 1938 Germany was producing 1,100 aero planes a year. During the invasion of Poland the Luftwaffe used 1,750 bombers and 1,200 fighters. Germany continued to increase production of aircraft during the Second World War. Year Other Combat types 1933 0 1934 840 Types 368 1,128 1935 1,823 1936 2,530 2,582 1937 2,651 2,955 1938 3,350 1,885 1939 4,733 3,562 33 German aircraft production by years When Adolf Hitler became Chancellor in 1933 he implemented Plan Z, a ten year programme to develop a fleet capable of challenging the Royal Navy. The main emphasis was placed on the building of submarines and fast surface squadrons in order to be able to control Britain's vital trade supply lines. German shipyards had difficulty producing the ships ordered by Hitler and on the outbreak of the Second World War the German Navy only had two battleships, two battlecruisers, three armored cruisers, three heavy cruisers, six light cruisers, 22 destroyers and 59 submarines. Soon afterwards the Bismarck was completed. At 41,700 tons, it was considered the most powerful warship in the world. Hitler began to rearm Germany in violation of the Treaty of Versailles 34 Britain’s Military Strength In 1939 the regular British Army had a strength of 227,000 men, inclusive of British troops in India and Burma, and was organized in: 2 regiments of the Household Cavalry 20 regiments of cavalry of the line 5 regiments of foot guards 64 regiments of infantry of the line the Royal Artillery the Royal Tank Regiment auxiliary units and services. This force was supported by the Territorial Army which had a strength of 204,000 officers and men organised in a field force of nine infantry divisions, one mobile division, two cavalry brigades, and an anti-aircraft corps of five divisions. During 1939, there was a massive increase in the size of the Territorial Army as it was put on a war footing and by August it numbered 428,000 men. Organization Infantry Division (motorised) Armoured Division 25 1 3 with 2,340 men and 99 officers each 2 battalions with 1,560 men and 66 officers together 13,600 ? 72 (36 x 18 pounders, 36 x 4.5inch Howitzers or 18/25 pounders) ? 75 (2 pounders or 25mm) ? 28 light tanks, 44 Universal Bren carriers 104 cruiser tanks, 20 scout cars Total units Infantry brigades Total men Artillery Anti-tank guns Tanks Basic British Army units Armored fighting vehicles Inventory Vickers Mk VI c. 894 Cruiser Tank Mk I (A9) 125 Cruiser Tank Mk III (A13) 65 Infantry tank Mk I, Matilda I (A13) 60 35 Organization Infantry Division (motorised) Armoured Division Infantry tank Mk II, Matilda II (A12) 2 Total 1,146 Inventory of armored fighting vehicles in September 1939 The British government introduced conscription and by May 1940, British Army strength was brought up to 50 divisions. Of these, 13 divisions were in France fighting against the German Western Offensive. After the evacuations from Dunkirk were complete on 26 May, 1946 the British Army had 1,650,000 men. The British Army only had 100 tanks left after Dunkirk and Vauxhall Motors were under instructions to produce the tanks as quickly as possible. When it became clear that Adolf Hitler was rapidly increasing the size Germany's armed forces, new ships were ordered in 1937 but none were ready when the Second World War started in 1939. Even so, the British naval forces were the largest in the world in 1939. By the outbreak of war the Royal Navy had 15 large battleships, 15 heavy cruisers, 46 light cruisers, 7 aircraft carriers, 181 destroyers and 59 submarines. However, only about half had been modernized and the rest were deficient in horizontal armor needed for protection against modern, long-range shellfire. The Royal Air Force (RAF) by amalgamated the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) with the Royal Flying Corps (RFC). The RAF had more than 22,000 aircraft and 291,000 personnel, making it the world's largest air force. Over the next twenty years the RAF was developed as a strategic bombing force. In September 1939, the Bomber Command consisted of 55 squadrons (920 aircraft). Fighter Command had 39 squadrons (600 aircraft) but the RAF only had 96 reconnaissance aircraft. A fleet of light and medium monoplane bombers were developed during this period. The RAF also obtained two fast, heavily armed interceptor aircraft, the Hawker Hurricane and the Supermarine Spitfire, for defense against enemy bombers. During the war the RAF used 333 flying training schools. On 22nd February 1939, the British government authorized the creation of a British Expeditionary Army (BEF) that would be sent to France in the event of war with Nazi Germany. On the outbreak of the Second World War, the BEF took up defensive positions along the Franco-Belgian frontier. The force included four regular infantry divisions and 50 light tanks. 36 Training Camps of the British Army Overseas territories Situation in India in 1940 Meeting of the top Indian political leaders in 1940 During the 1940s, India crossed the bridge from colonialism to independence. This period has generally been said as a historic movement, with its closing years as the aftermath. In the history of the 1940s, contention persists over responsibility for the duality of identity through which India achieved freedom. In the wake of World War II, the agrarian economy of the Punjab witnessed food crisis, rationing, price rise and inflation in the 1940s which caused large scale dispossession and deprivation among the producers and consumers, especially the middle and the lower classes. Excessive exports of 37 food grains led to price rises, hoarding, black marketing and speculation and inflation. This caused discontentment among the masses. Political control by the colonial state came under strain. The profile of the army changed as well. The number of Muslim recruits from the Punjab quadrupled. The share of the Sikhs also increased. A nationalistic spirit was brewing in the Indian army against the British masters. On 26 August 1939, the Department of Supply was created to deal directly with the problems concerning supplies of all kinds required for the check of the impending war. The War Supply Board was reorganized in November 1939. The rural population was asked to intensify the area under cultivation through the ‘Grow More Food’ campaign in the Punjab. The then viceroy considered the procurement of the necessary wheat surplus from the Punjab as far more important than any political considerations, including any interests of the ministers, and even the continuance of provincial autonomy in the Punjab. In Bengal in 1940, there was a small scale famine but due to quick action by the authorities, widespread loss of life was prevented. Food prices increased throughout India, and led the Central Government was forced to undertake meetings with local government officials and release regulations of price controls. In May 1940, agreement was reached between the British and Indian governments over a formation of five infantry and armoured divisions. These new divisions were intended to be used in the defence of Malaya and Iraq .The armoured division, was to go to Egypt but the formation of the rest of the armoured division was put on hold, because of the shortage of armoured vehicles. Situation in Palestine in 1940 Arab riots in 1936 Instituted by the League of Nations in the early 20th century, the Mandate system was meant to serve the purpose of regulating the administration of non-self-governing territories. The 38 mandatory power was to consider the mandated territory a temporary trust and to see to the wellbeing and advancement of its population. The mandate passed by the League of Nations on July 1922 granted Great Britain a mandate over Palestine. During the British Mandate period the area experienced the ascent of two major nationalist movements, one among the Jews and the other among the Arabs. The competing national interests of the Arab and Jewish populations of Palestine against both each other and the governing British authorities matured into the Arab Revolt of 1936–1939 and the Jewish insurgency in Palestine before culminating in the Civil War of 1947– 1948. History of Palestine Under the British Mandate Following its occupation by British troops in 1917–1918, Palestine was governed by the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. In July 1920, the military administration was replaced by a civilian administration headed by a High Commissioner. The first High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel, a Zionist recent cabinet minister, arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920. Following the arrival of the British, Muslim-Christian Associations were established in all the major towns. In 1919 they joined to hold the first Palestine Arab Congress in Jerusalem. Its main platforms were a call for representative government and opposition to the Balfour Declaration. The Zionist Commission was formed in March 1918 and was recognized in 1922 as the representatives of the Jewish community. Herbert.Samuel tried to establish self-governing institutions in Palestine, as required by the mandate, but was frustrated by the refusal of the Arab leadership to co-operate with any institution which included Jewish participation. When the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Kamil al-Husayni died in March 1921, High Commissioner Samuel Mohammad Amin al-Husseini to the position. Amin al-Husseini, a member of the al-Husayni clan of Jerusalem, was an Arab nationalist and Muslim leader. As Grand Mufti, al-Husseini played a key role in violent opposition to Zionism. In 1922, al-Husseini was elected President of the Supreme Muslim Council which had been created by Samuel in December 1921. The Council controlled the Waqf funds, worth annually tens of thousands of pounds and the orphan funds. In addition, he controlled the Islamic courts in Palestine. The 1922 Palestine Order in Council established a Legislative Council, which was to consist of 23 members: 12 elected, 10 appointed, and the High Commissioner. Of the 12 elected members, eight were to be Muslim Arabs, two Christian Arabs and two Jews. Arabs protested against the unfair distribution of the seats, arguing that they constituted 88% of the population, but garnered only a meager 43% of the seats. Elections were held in February and March 1923, but due to an Arab boycott, the results were annulled and a 12-member Advisory Council was established. This event indicated the gradual onset of the Jewish-Arabic conflict and cemented the belief in the minds of the Arabs that the British administration favored the Zionists. It paved the way for the Arabic insurgency which took place in the 1930s. In 1930, Sheikh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam on arriving in Palestine from Syria, organized and established the Black Hand, an anti-Zionist and anti-British militant organization. He recruited and arranged military training for peasants and by 1935 he had enlisted between 200 and 800 men. Their activities encompassed the killing of Zionist settlers in different area, as well as engaging in a campaign of vandalism of the settlers’ property and British constructed rail-lines. The Arab revolt The assassination of al-Qassam in 1936, by the British authorities for his revolutionary activities generated widespread outrage in the Arab community. A few months later, in April 1936, the Arab national general strike broke out. The strike lasted until October 1936, instigated by the Arab Higher Committee, headed by Amin al-Husseini. During the summer of that year, thousands of Jewish-farmed acres and orchards were destroyed, Jewish civilians were attacked and killed, and 39 some Jewish communities, sought refuge in safer areas. The violence abated for about a year while the British sent the Peel Commission to investigate. Following the rejection of the recommendation of the Peel Commission, the revolt resumed in the autumn of 1937. Over the next 18 months, the British lost control of Nablus and Hebron. British forces, supported by 6,000 armed Jewish auxiliary police, suppressed the widespread riots with overwhelming force. The British officer Charles Orde Wingate (who supported a Zionist revival for religious reasons) organised Special Night Squads composed of British soldiers and Jewish volunteers such as Yigal Alon, which scored significant victories over the Arabs by conducting raids on Arab villages. The Jewish militia Irgun also used violence against Arab civilians as "retaliatory acts", attacking bustling marketplaces and other crowded areas of congregation.By the time the revolt concluded in March 1939, more than 5,000 Arabs, 400 Jews, and 200 British had been killed and at least 15,000 Arabs were wounded. The Revolt resulted in the deaths of 5,000 Palestinian Arabs and the wounding of 10,000. In total, 10% of the adult Arab male population was killed, wounded, imprisoned, or exiled. The attacks on the Jewish population by Arabs had three lasting effects: First, they led to the formation and development of Jewish underground militias, primarily the Haganah. Secondly, it became clear that the differences between the two communities could not be reconciled, and the idea of partition was born. Thirdly, the British responded to Arab opposition with the White Paper of 1939, which severely restricted Jewish land purchase and immigration. However, with the advent of World War II, even this reduced immigration quota was not reached. The White Paper policy also radicalized segments of the Jewish population, who after the war would no longer cooperate with the British. In 1937, the Peel Commission proposed a partition between a small Jewish state, whose Arab population would have to be transferred, and an Arab state to be attached to Jordan. The proposal was rejected by the Arabs. The two main Jewish leaders had convinced the Zionist Congress to approve equivocally to the Peel recommendations as a basis for more negotiation. White Paper British White Paper of 1939 Following the London Conference (1939) the British Government published a White Paper. The white paper had been a policy paper issued by the British government under Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. An authoritative report, it highlighted the issuing body’s policies regarding the matter 40 at hand. Abandoning the idea of the partition of Palestine, this particular White Paper aimed at bringing about the following changes: 1. Ten years after the release of the paper, Palestine will be given conditional independence. It will function as a unitary state. 2. For five years, 10,000 Jewish immigrants can enter Palestine on an annual basis. Further immigration will be subjected to Arab acquiescence. 3. Palestine land will be protected from Zionist acquisition and safety of the citizens will be ensured by both the parties. Since the White Paper was a major blow for the Zionist agenda, it was never accepted by the Jewish community. The outbreak of World War II deteriorated the situation even further as Jews came out in the open to oppose the Paper and continued their illegal migration to Palestine. This was seen by the Yishuv as betrayal of the mandatory terms, especially in light of the increasing persecution of Jews in Europe. In response, Zionists organised Aliyah Bet, a program of illegal immigration into Palestine. The Lehi (Fighters for the Freedom of Israel), an extremist Zionist organization and the Irgun (National Military Organization) movements initiated violent uprisings against the British Mandate in 1940.However, the Jewish Agency, which represented the mainstream Zionist leadership, still hoped to persuade Britain to allow resumed Jewish immigration, and cooperated with Britain in World War II. WWII saw a brief period of close British-Jewish military collaboration mainly due to Churchill who was sympathetic to the aims of the Zionists. During World War II, the Jewish Agency completely dishonored the 1939 White Paper issued by British government, which outlined the steps related to Jewish immigration into Palestine. The White Paper included the following major recommendations: The Second World War was the first major outbreak of Palestinian-Zionist hostilities.By the time World War II started, a decent population of Jews had already migrated to Palestine. During the war, different Jewish military organizations such as Haganah, IZL, and Stern Gang remained active in the region. Israel used both diplomatic channels and armed forces to strengthen their position in Palestine. Despite a phase of British-Israel tension during the War, the Zionists managed to achieve their political motives. The Jews gained international sympathies due to the Holocaust while Zionist propaganda against the pro-Nazi role of Mufti Haj Amin al-Husseini also worked in their favor. Frequent acts of violence took place in Palestine during the War, marking the beginning of its tumultuous times. The British Mandate authorities granted the Jewish and Arab communities the right to run their internal affairs; thus the yishuv established the Elected Assembly and the National Council. However, at the end of the day, the Mandatory government under Britain did not succeed in maintaining the letter and spirit of the Mandate. Under Arab pressure, it withdrew from its commitment, especially with respect to immigration and land acquisition. It did not manage to further the interests of the inhabitants of the region and failed to bring about harmony and prosperity. Relation of the Commonwealth countries to World War II 41 During World War Two, forces from the British Commonwealth of Nations, then still informally called the British Empire, were involved in all the major theatres of war, as well as serving on their own and on the British home fronts. In addition to providing men and women for the war effort, the Empire supplied raw materials and goods to Britain. The Empire fell into two distinct parts. There were the self-governing 'white' Dominions - Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa. And there were those regions that were wholly or partly governed from London, including India, which had its own viceroy, as well as the West Indies and British colonies in Africa and the Far East. At the outbreak of war in 1939, India and the other colonial parts of the Empire had no choice and automatically joined in the war on the side of Britain. The Dominions made their own decision to enter the war on the British side. The Irish Free State opted for neutrality. During the war the British Empire and Dominions raised a total of 8,586,000 men for military service. More than 5 million came from the British Isles, 1,440,500 from India, 629,000 from Canada, 413,000 from Australia, 136,000 from South Africa, 128,500 from New Zealand and more than 134,000 from other colonies. Troops from the Dominions fought in all theatres where British troops were engaged. Canada was the site of the first British Commonwealth Air Training Scheme flying school, where many pilots from the Empire and Dominions were trained. Men from the Dominion air forces - Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and South African - were incorporated into the RAF. The Royal Australian Navy served in the Mediterranean and in the Far East, as did the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy. The Royal Canadian Navy made a significant contribution to Allied victory in the Battle of the Atlantic, providing escorts for convoys crossing between Canada and Britain. Over two and a half million Indian men volunteered for service, producing the largest volunteer army in history. Many fought against the Japanese in Burma, but Indian soldiers also served in North and East Africa, Italy and Greece. The Royal Indian Air Force (RIAF) fought against the Japanese, while Royal Indian Navy ships fought in the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean. There were around 40,000 Indian servicemen in the British Merchant Navy. In the West Indies, thousands of men joined the local home guard and the British Army. In addition, many from countries occupied by the Nazis came to Britain to serve in the British forces. French, Belgian, Czech, Dutch, Norwegian and Polish governments-in-exile were established in the UK. A Czech armoured brigade served in the Normandy campaign and four Czech squadrons flew with the RAF. Belgian and Dutch units were created in the RAF, and their national brigades fought in the liberation of Europe. Norwegian soldiers, sailors and airmen served in their own units under British operational control. The men of the Polish Air Force who had managed to escape to Britain were subordinated to RAF command. Polish troops fought with the British army in North Africa, Italy and in north-west Europe. The British overseas colonies and countries with dominion status helped Britain greatly in her war efforts, in terms of men, arms and aid. 42 Britain’s Overseas Territories in 1940 LETTER FROM THE DESK OF MR. WINSTON CHURCHILL Gentlemen, I welcome you to the very first assemblage of the War ministry under the able leadership of the newly elected Prime Minister of United Kingdom, Mr. Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill. Officers, England was shattered, tormented and ruined after our engagement in the first world war. We won the victory, but lost the peace. We find ourselves in the midst of yet another war with less 43 than a decade apart. What lies ahead of us are perilous times. We shall not fail or falter. We shall not weaken or tire. Neither the sudden shock of battle nor the long drawn trials of vigilance and exertion will wear us down. This is not a question of fighting for Danzig or fighting for Poland. We are fighting to save the whole world from the pestilence of Nazi tyranny and in defense of all that is most sacred to man. This is no war of domination or imperial aggrandizement or material gain; no war to shut any country out of its sunlight and means of progress. It is a war, viewed in its inherent quality, to establish, on impregnable rocks, the rights of the individual, and it is a war to establish and revive the stature of the British Empire. If we fail, then the whole world, including all that we have known and cared for, will sink into abyss of a new dark age made more sinister, and perhaps more protracted, by the lights of corrupt and distort science. Our aim is Victory; victory at all costs, victory in spite of terror, victory, however hard and long the road maybe, for without victory, there is no survival. We must not underrate the gravity of the task which lies before us or the temerity of the ordeal, to which we shall not be found unequal. We must expect many disappointments, and many unpleasant surprises, but we may be sure that the task which we have freely accepted is one not beyond the compass and the strength of the British Empire Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties. My hope is that, the generous instincts of unity will not depart from us. The Situation At Hand- A tremendous battle is raging in France and Flanders. The Germans, by a remarkable combination of air bombing and heavily armored tanks, have broken through the French defenses north of the Maginot Line, and strong columns of their armored vehicles are ravaging the open country, which for the first day or two was without defenders. They have penetrated deeply and spread alarm and confusion in their track. Behind them there are now appearing infantry in lorries, and behind them, again, the large masses are moving forward. The regroupment of the French armies to make head against, and also to strike at, this intruding wedge has been proceeding for several days, largely assisted by the magnificent efforts of the Royal Air Force. We must not allow ourselves to be intimidated by the presence of these armored vehicles in unexpected places behind our lines. It would be foolish, however, to disguise the gravity of the hour. It would be still more foolish to lose heart and courage. In the air we have been clawing down three or four to one of our enemies; and the relative balance of the British and German Air Forces is now considerably more favorable to us than at the time when we had declared war on Germany. My confidence in our ability to fight it out to the finish with the German Air Force has been strengthened by the fierce encounters which have taken place and are taking place. At the same time, our heavy bombers are striking nightly at the tap-root of German mechanized power, and have already inflicted serious damage upon the oil refineries on which the Nazi effort to dominate the world directly depends. Having received His Majesty's commission, I have formed an Administration of men and women of every Party and of almost every point of view. We have differed and quarreled in the past, but now one bond unites us all: to wage war until victory is won, and never to surrender ourselves to servitude and shame, whatever the cost and the agony may be. It is time we answer the call of our duty and advance to rescue not only Europe but mankind from the foulest and most soul-destroying tyranny which has ever darkened and stained the pages of history. Behind the Armies and Fleets of Britain and France, gather a group of shattered States and bludgeoned races: the Czechs, the Poles, 44 the Norwegians, the Danes, the Dutch, the Belgians who we must protect from the barbarism that has descended upon them. It is time we convene to protect our motherland: ' Arm yourselves, and be ye men of valour, and be in readiness for the conflict; for it is better for us to perish in battle than to look upon the outrage of our nation and our altars. As the will of God is in Heaven, even so let it be.' I look forward to your presence. Regards, Winston Churchill 10th May, 1940. 45